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Issued February 20. 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 73.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF THE

SEEDS OF QUACK-GRASS AND OF

CERTAIN WHEAT-GRASSES.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK

*»«>tanical

BY

F. H. HILOIAX,
Assistant Botanist, Seed Laboratory.

gg3Qgo 11 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 191)

.-xsci

^/i

/Ul.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Gallowat.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, ^XiLLixyi A. Taylor.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.

Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

[Cir. 73]
2

B. P. I.— 624.

THE DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF THE SEEDS
OF OUACK-GRASS AND OF CERTAIN WHEAT-
GRASSES."

INTRODUCTION.

In view of the noxious character of quack-grass, c{uitch-grass, or
couch-grass (Agropyron repens L.), the recognition of its seeds as an
impurity of commercial seeds is important and desirable. This
matter has special significance in connection with the seed of the
forage plant known as.awnless, or Hungarian, brome-grass (Bromus
inermis Leyss). Brome-grass is extensively handled in- the American
market, and much of the seed offered is imported either from Europe
or from the western provinces of Canada.

Examination of samples of brome-grass seed taken from imported
lots shows that seed from Europe invariably contains seed of quack-
grass, which is rarely found in seed from Canada. In the place of
quack-grass seed the Canadian brome-grass seed usualh" contains seed
of one or another of the wheat-grasses which are native to the Western
States and to Canada and which have much the same habit of growth
as quack-grass. Since these wheat-grasses are native to this country
and to Canada, their seeds do not appear in brome-grass seed im-
ported from Europe. The seeds of the wheat-grasses are so similar to
those of c{uack-grass that they may readily be mistaken for the latter.
It becomes important, therefore, that the presence of the seed of
quack-grass in brome-grass seed be detected with certainty and that
lots of brome-grass seed carrving seed of wheat-grass onlv mav be
distinguished and not rejected as suspected of containing quack-grass
seed.

The purpose of tliis- paper is to so point out the distinguishing char-
acters of the seeds of quack-grass and of the two kinds of wheat-grasses
chiefly involved that their presence as an impurity of brome-grass
or other forage-plant seeds may be practical!}' determined.

« The distinguish iiffr of the seeds of quack-grass, one of the greatest weed pests in the
Northwest, from seeds of similar appearance is of importance in all regions where
quack-grass may become troublesome. In the present paper the characteristic
differences between the seeds of quack-grass and the seeds of other grasses of similar
appearance have been pointed out in such a practical way as to furnish a means of
readily determining the presence or absence of quack-grass seed in commercial seed. —
Wsi. A. Taylor, Acting Chief of Bureau.

60309— Cir. 73—11 3

SEEDS or QUACK-GBASS AND OF CERTAIN WHEAT-GKASSES.

Quack-grass and the wheat-grasses are closely related botanically,
belonging to the same genus, Agropyron. The wheat-grasses com-
monly appearing in brome-grass seed are slender wheat-grass (Agro-
pyron tenerum Vasey) and western wheat-grass (Agropyron occidentale
Scribn.),'* known also in the West as Colorado bluestem.

Owing to the close relationship of these grasses, their seeds, taken
individually at least, appear to be practically indistinguishable. The
structure and fruiting habits of the seed clusters, however, afford,
means for their recognition which appear to be well founded.

NATURE OF THE SEEDS OF AGROPYRON.

The individual seeds, or ripened florets, of Agropyron are produced
in clusters termed "spikelets," each spikelet containing several seeds.
At maturity the spikelets usually tend to break apart, permitting the

seeds to separate. Xot all the spike-

_^, - iS v;.^ lets thus wholly go to pieces, but

■•: some appear in their entirety or in

'- part in samples of seed. Thus, the

term "seed," as popularly employed^

refers in this case both to whole or

partial spikelets and to individual

seeds.

The complete spikelet (see fig.
1, a) consists of a pair of oppositely
placed, somewhat unequal, slender
scales, or glumes (d and e), united
at the base of the spikelet, and sev-
eral alternately arranged "seeds,''
or ripened florets, situated between
and above the glumes. The glumes
are united side by side or on the
same level, which is a readily ob-
served mark of distinction in spike-
lets of Agropyron. They are more
or less distinctly veined length-
wise, the veins varying from three
to seven in the kinds under consideration. The variation in size and
form of spikelet and in form, venation, etc., exhibited in the glumes
of these kinds of Agropyron affords marks of distinction.

The individual seeds (see fig. 1, h and c), or ripened florets, consist
of the grain inclosed between two scales, one of which, the lemma, is

a Agropyron ocddentale Scribn. is described in the seventh edition of Gray's Manual
under A. smithii Rydb., and in Britton's Manual under A. spicatum (Pursh) Scribn.
and Sm.

[Cir. 73]

.^f

Fig. 1.— a spikelet and seeds of quack-grass,
showing the general structure of the spike-
lets and seeds of Agropyron: o, A complete
spikelet; 6, the inner face of a seed, showing
the grooved palea and the rachilla segment
(/); c, a seed, showing the rounded back of
the lemma; d and e, glumes of the spikelet.
(Enlarged.)

>.<s&t!

SEEDS OF QUACK-GRASS AND OF CERTAIN WHEAT-GRASSES. 5

larcjer than the other, the palea. The seeds are broadly crrooved on
the side bearin^r the palea (&) and rounded on that bearino^ the lemma
(c). A portion of the cluster axis, termed the "rachilla seojment" (/),
appears at the base of the grooved palea of the seed. The individual
seeds of Agropyron are so similar that no attempt is made here to
distinguish the kinds by them. The number of seeds per spikelet
varies from four or five to twelve. Both glumes and seeds may be
either acute or awn pointed at the tips.

The spikelets are attached facewise to the axis bearing them (see
fig. 2, a and h), differing from other
grasses in which the spikelets are at-
tached edgewise to the axis.

The spikelets and seeds of Agropyron
are generally straw colored or tinged
with green.

THE SEEDS OF AGROPYRON AND OF

BROME-GRASS COMPARED. 4

Seeds of awnless brome-grass (see fig. ■ ■
3, a) are about three-eighths of an inch
long, flattened and thin, light brown,
the darker grain evident through the ;

thin palea, which is more or less l|i&|p^ ^^i^,.

A\Tinkled and bears two slender, hairy a b

veins. The slender rachilla segment is fiq. 2.-a section of the seed cluster of

, . rni 11111 c quack-grass, showing the mode of attach-

han-y. Ihe rounded back, or lemma, ot ^ent of the spikelets to the rachis, or

the seed is more or less distinctly five cluster axis: a, side view; 6, edge view.

veined. The seeds of brome-grass are

larger than those of quack-grass (fig. .3, d) and smaller than all
except the smallest of the spikelets of the latter (fig. 3, c). Samples
of brome-grass seed usually contain partial spikelets of brome-grass
(fig. 3, h), which are not likely to be confounded with the spikelets of
c^uack-grass when compared with the latter. The generally lighter
color of the quack-grass seeds and spikelets, together with the oppo-
site attachment of their glumes, serves to distinguish them from
the brome-grass seeds.

THE SEEDS OF QUACK-GRASS, SLENDER WHEAT-GRASS, AND
WESTERN WHEAT-GRASS DESCRIBED.

The following descriptions are designed to point out the con-
trasting characters of the mature spikelets of quack-grass, slender
wheat-grass, and western wheat-grass, as they appear in commercial
samples of seed.

[Cir. 73]

6

SEEDS OF QUACK-GBASS AND OF CERTAIN WHEAT-GRASSES.

QUACK-GRASS (aGROPYRON REPENS, l).

The spikelets of quack-grass (fig. 4) vary from one-lialf to three-
fourths of an inch in length and contain four to seven seeds. Both
glumes and individual seeds may be merely acute or may bear a
short awn at the apex. The glumes may diverge somewhat, well
exposing the seeds, or they may be nearly parallel, nearly covering
the lower seeds. The two faces of the spikelet may be about
equally convex and the angles between the glumes about equal
on the two faces, or the faces may be unequally convex and the
glumes more widely separated on the more convex face than on

Fig. 3.— a mixture of seeds of awnless brome-grass (a), partial spikelets of Ijrome-grass (6), spikelets and

glumes of quack-grass (c), and seeds of quack-grass (d). (Enlarged about 2i times.)

the other. The seeds extend beyond the tips of the glumes from
slightly to half the length of the glumes. The glumes (see figs. 4
and 5) are five veined or seven veined, the veins distinct, the cen-
tral or keel vein a little coarser than the others, giving the glumes
a slightly keeled form. The margins of the glumes are thin, papery,
narrowing to the apex, and usually merge abruptly into the pointed
or awned tip.

^lature spikelets of quack-grass tend to retain the individual
seeds and in consequence whole or partial spikelets alwaj^s appear

[Cir. 73]

SEEDS OF QUACK-GKASS AND OF CEETAIN WHEAT-GRASSES.

\V.

Fig. 4.— Splkelets of quack-grass, showing different forms. Note the
forms of the ghimes in o, 6, c, d, and the awned fonn of glumes and
seeds shown in d; e, edge view of spikelet. (Enlarged.)

along with the comparatively few individual seeds in samples of
brome-grass seed containing seeds of quack-grass.

SLENDER WHEAT-GRASS (aGROPYRON TENERUM, VASEY).

The spikclets of slender wheat-grass (fig. 6) vary from one-half to
three-fourths of an inch in length and contain four to seven seeds.
Both glumes and seeds may be slenderly acute or short awned
at the apex. The
glumes may diverge
somewhat in mature
spikelets, but they
are commonly nearly
parallel and curved
at the back, the tips
curving inwardly
over the seeds, which
exceed the glumes
scarcely at all or by
as much as one-third
the length of the glume. The spikelets usually taper from the
center to both ends both facewise and edgewise, the two faces being
une([ually convex, the glumes being more widelv separated on the
more convex face. (See fig. 6, c, d, and e. ) The spikelets are generally
narrower than those of quack-grass, the base being smaller as a rule.

The glumes (see fig. 6) are relatively
broader than those of quack-grass, five
veined to seven vemed, the veins
slender and distinct, the middle or keel
vein scarcely coarser than the adjacent
ones, and the glume rounded at the
back rather than keeled or angled.
The thin, pa[)ery margins of the glumes
narrow gradually to the tapering or
awned apex.

]\hiture spikelets of slender wheat-
grass tend to break apart readily, only occasional complete spike-
lets appearing in commercial samples of seed. Empty glumes
(see fig. 6, a) often remain united and appear both free from and
attached to a part of the seed-cluster axis. As an impurit}' of
brome-grass seed, slender wheat-grass, therefore, usualh' a])pears as
free seed, with occasional spikelets or glumes to be depended upon
for identification,
[Cir. 7y]

Fig. 5.— Empty glumes of quack-grass spike
lets, showing common forms. (Enlarged.)

8 SEEDS OF QUACK-GRASS AKD OF CERTAIN WHEAT-GRASSES.

WESTERN WHEAT-GRASS (aGROPYROX OCCIDENT ALE, SCRIBX.).

Well-developed spikelets of western wheat-grass (see fig. 7, a) are
larger than those of either quack-grass or slender wheat-grass, often
equalmg an inch in length, but are commonly between five-eighths
and three-fourths of an inch in length, lance shaped and compressed

facewise. The slender
" glumes are more or less

divergent, exposing the
lower seeds. In the larger
spikelets the seeds ex-
ceed the glumes equal to
the length of the latter,
making the larger spike-
lets twice as long as the
glumes. The seeds are
narrowly acute or awn
pomted at the apex.
The glumes (see fig. 7)
are stifnsh, narrowly lance shaped, and a^\^l pointed, three vemed
or five veined, the middle vein somewhat coarser than the others,
giving the glumes a slightly keeled form, the veins distinct or often
obscure. The margins of the glumes are thin and papery, chiefly
below the middle, and taper gradually to the pointed apex.

.I""-.;

J -I

d

>v\^>

v^.

Fig. 6.— Emptygliimes(f;)and spikelets of slender wheat-grass.
Note the fonns of the glumes: c, d, Opposite sides of a spikelet,
showing the relative position of the glumes, d being the inner,
more convex side; e, edge view. (Enlarged.)

Fig. 7.— Spikelets and glumes of western wheat-grass: a, One of the larger spikelets having the maxl-
mum number of seeds; 6 and d, small spikelets havmg few seeds; c, edge view of a spikelet; c, free,
empty gliraies; /, empty glumes attached to a portion of the cluster axis. Note the form of the glumes.
(Enlarged.)

Mature spikelets of western wheat-grass break apart readily, the
seeds separating from the glumes. Snmples of commercial seed,
such as brome-grass seed, containing seed of western wheat-grass
have few empty glumes (fig. 7, e), some of wliich may remain
attached to the spikelet axis (fig. 7, /).

[Cii-. 73]

SEEDS OF QUACK-GRASS AND OF CERTAIN WHEAT-GRASSES. 9

SUMMARY.

(1) Seed of qiuick-grass is a common impurity of certain kinds of
commercial seed, especially of the seed of awnless brome-grass
(Bromus inermis).

(2) Quack-grass seed appears in all lots of brome-grass seed im-
poit(Ml from Europe and may occur in brome-grass seed produced in
Canada or the Western States.

(3) Brome-grass seed i)roduced in Canada or the United States
often contains seed of wheat-grasses, which is likely to be mistaken
for quack-grass seed. It is therefore desirable to distinguish between
quack-grass seed and the similar seed of the wheat-grasses.

(4) Seeds of quack-grass in brome-giass seed appear chie% as
whole or partial spikelets, while few such spikelets of the wheat-
grasses occur in sam])les containing seed of these grasses.

(5) The most evident identifying characters of quack-grass and
wheat-grass seeds appear in the spikelets and their glumes.

(6) While it is usually possible to determine which kind of Agro-
pyron is in a sample of seed, the presence or absence of quack-grass
seed with reference to awnless brome-grass seed should be determin-
able without difficulty.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, October 28, 1910.

[Cir. 73]

O

Issued March 15, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 74.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMERCLVL

OATS AND BARLEY.

BY

LE ROY M. SMITH,
Assistant, Office of Grain Standardization.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1811

77763°— Cir. 74—11

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assidant Chief of Bureau. William A. Taylor.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

[Cir. 74]

9

B. I'. I.— 634.

TUB SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMERCIAL

OATS AND BARLEY.

INTRODUCTION.

When a crop of oats or of barley is harvested under adverse weather
conditions, or in a careless manner, there is generally a deterioration
in both the quality and condition of the grain which reduces its market
vahie. In order to make grain thus damaged appear sound, healthy,
and bright, and also to remove the objectionable odors which are
usually present, such grain is often artificially bleached with sulphur-
ous acid, thereby making it possible to realize a higher price from its
sale.

The bleaching of grain, and especially the bleaching of oats, with
sulphurous acid has been practiced in many of the larger grain
markets for a considerable number of years, but with the compara-
tively recent developments in apparatus for bleaching grain rapidly
and inexpensively the practice has become common also in the smaller
grain centers. The process of bleaching is ordinarily referred to in
the grain markets as "purifying," and grain so treated is sometimes
sold as "purified" grain, no mention being made of its having been
bleached or of sulphur having been used in the process of bleaching.

Based on investigations carried on at 13 grain markets in 3 of the
leading oat-producing States, it is estimated that 18,732,000 bushels
of oats and barley were })leached in those markets during the six
months from October, 1908, to March, 1909, inclusive. The best data
available show that during the same period approximately 75 per cent
of the low-grade oats, ordinarily No. 4 White or below, received at
those markets were sulphur bleached.

Sulphur-bleached oats are marketed chieti}^ in New England and in
such of the Eastern and Southern States as do not produce enough oats
for home consumption. On account of the bright and attractive
appearance of the bleached grain, it is often selected in preference to
the unbleached.

Laws have been enacted in several of the States under the authority
of which the food commissions of those States have held it to be un-
lawful to offer sulphur-bleached or chemically treated grain for sale
within those States except when it is so labeled.

ICir. 74]

4 SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMEECIAL OATS AND BARLEY.

The views of the Board of Food and Drug Inspection of the United
States Department of Agriculture "- with respect to the use of sulphur
dioxid in foods are as follows:

No objection will be made to foods which contain the ordinary quantities of sul-
phur dioxid if the fact that such foods have been so prepared is plainly stated upon
the label of each package. An abnormal quantity of sulphur dioxid placed in food
for the purpose of marketing an excessive moisture content will be regarded as
fraudulent adulteration under the food and drugs act of June 30, 1906, and will be
proceeded against accordingly.

In some States the laws and in other States the grade rules under
which the grain-inspection departments work prohibit the grading of
bleached or chemically treated oats and barle}', but owing to the diffi-
culty of distinguishing, except in extreme or exceptional cases, between
the bleached and unbleached grain without submitting it to a chemical
test, these prohibitions are not always carried out. When such grain
is refused a grade it is designated as "purified" by the inspectors and
sold by sample instead of by grade.

Selling bleached oats by sample has alwaj^s been more or less
unsatisfactory^ and has led to many disputes between buyer and seller.
In marketing this class of grain, when it is not designated as "purified"
it is customary to make up standard samples to which trade names
are often given. These samples are sent to prospective buyers inva-
riably in cloth sacks of open fiber which allow the sulphurous-acid
odor to be dissipated. Upon delivery of the grain on the basis of
these samples, the odor of sulphurous acid is readily detected and the
buyer is dissatisfied because he believes the car of grain delivered is
not like the original sample.

METHOD OF SULPHUR BLEACHING.

There are several types of grain bleachers in use, the most common
of which is the "tower" or "chimney" bleacher, so called because of
the style of its construction. The different forms of this type vary
principally in the manner of distributing the grain at the top and in
the way in which it passes through the bleacher. These tower bleach-
ers are constructed of brick, masonr}^ or wood covered with galvan-
ized iron; and for convenience in handling the grain through them the
towers are built close to the elevator, the top of the tower usually
corresponding with the upper working floor of the elevator, which
may be at a height of 25 to 60 feet above the ground. On the interior
of the bleaching tower, which is about 3 or 4 feet square, are alter-
nating series of deflecting shelves set at an angle of about 45" to the
horizontal plane. The purpose of these shelves is to retard the move-
ment of the grain and to distribute it evenly through the tower after
it falls from the spout at the top, as shown in figure 1.

a Food Inspection Decision No. 89, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Mar. 5, 1908.
[Cir. 74]

SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMERCIAL OATS AND BARLEY. 5

As practiced com-
mercially, sulphur is
burned in a furnace
or oven located some
distance from the
bleach in<y tower as a
precaution against
tire. The burning
sulphur coming in
contact with the oxy-
gen of the air forms
sulphur-dioxid gas,
which is forced into
th'e bleaching tower
8 or 10 feet from its
base through a pipe
leading from the fur-
nace.

In order that the
bleaching may be ac-
complished this sul-
phur-dioxid gas must
come in contact with
water and unite with
it, in which case it
forms sulphurous
acid, which is the
bleaching agent.
For this reason the
grain, as it passes
into the bleaching
tower at the top,
is dampened with
either a jet of steam
or small spra3^s of
water. The sulphur-
dioxid gas, circulat-
ing upward, unites
with the moisture
adhering to the out-
side of the down-
ward-moving grain,
thereby making the
bleaching possible.

[Cir. 74]

Fig. 1.— A common type of tower or chimney grain bleacher.

A, Elevator leg which conveys grain from elevator to bleacher;

B, steam jets which moisten grain; C, first break for stream of
grain; V, deflecting shelves; E, pipe wliich conveys sulphur di-
oxid to bleacher; F, steam jet which creates suction draft in sul-
phur pipe; G, glass gauge through which height of grain in the
tower is observed; H, regulator for grain outlet; /, screw con-
veyor which returns grain to elevator; J, landing on tower; A',
door opening into tower for purpose of cleaning grain break;
L, sulphur furnace in which the sulphur dioxid is generated;
M, pocket in which grain accumulates, allowing better action
of sulphur dioxid.

6 SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMERCIAL OATS AND BARLEY.

The base of the tower bleacher forms a pocket in which the grain
is allowed to accumulate to a point underneath the inlet for the sul-
phur dioxid. Owing to the accumulation of the grain in this pocket,
better action of the sulphurous acid upon the stained and discolored
grain is afforded by lengthening the time it is confined in the bleacher.
With this method of bleaching, the grain is in the tower about two or
three minutes.

After treatment in the bleaching tower the grain is returned to the
elevator bins, where it is customarily left from 24 to 48 hours, and
where a large part of the actual bleaching takes place. If one bleach-
ing fails to produce the desired result, the process is repeated.

Before loading for shipment, the grain thus treated is "run" or
"handled" in the elevator for the purpose of cooling it and also to
remove the sulphurous-acid odor, which is only partly accomplished.
More or less moisture is lost during the handling, but the operator
aims to remove no more moisture than is necessary, because the addi-
tion of moisture is one of the sources of profit in the bleaching process.

RESULTS OF SULPHUR BLEACHING.

APPEARANCE IMPROVED BY BLEACHING.

As shown in figure 2, the oats subjected to sulphur bleaching are
the lower grades of white oats, the commercial grades of No. 3, No. 4,
and "Sample" or "No grade" white oats usually being used. The
reason that such oats receive low grades may be due to several causes,
such as stain, field or mold damage, bad odors, or a low-test weight
per measured bushel. When the damage is stain or mold the outward
appearance of the grain is greatly changed by sulphur bleaching, and
it is often difficult to distinguish between the sulphur-bleached grain
and that which is naturall}^ bright and sound, without subjecting it to
a chemical test.

For the purpose of determining to what extent the outward appear-
ance of oats is changed through sulphur bleaching, samples represent-
ing 9 lots of oats before and after bleaching were submitted to several
experienced grain inspectors for grading in the regular manner, with
the exception that they did not take into consideration the odor of
sulphurous acid on the samples of bleached oats.

The results of this test were that 6 of the sulphur-bleached samples
were classed the eciuivalent of a full grade higher than the samples
representing the corresponding lots of oats before bleaching and 3 of
the samples were raised from the average to the top of the same grade.'*

a In the trading upon the grain exchanges there is at times a range of 1 to 3 cents
or more per bushel in the market price of a single grade of oats, depending on the
apparent quaHty and condition of the grain, and in order to compare values more
definitely than can be done by the present specifications for grades, the terms "top"
and "bottom" of the grade are used.
[Cu-. 74]

SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMERCIAL OATS AND BARLEY. 7

A comparison of tlio Q-rados of oats V)ofore and after ])leacliing- is
shown in tigure 2.

CHANGE IN MOISTURE CONTENT AND WEIGHT TER BUSHKL.

Samples of oats before and after bleaching were collected at various
places throughout the oat-producing sections. The samples before
bleaching were taken ^ s^^se-^es

as the grain was being
elevated to the bleach-
ing tower and the sam-
pies after bleaching
were obtained as the
grain was being con-
veyed back to the
storehouse or elevator
bin.

The moisture con-
tent of every sample
was found to be higher
after bleaching. The detail of samples is shown in tigure 3 and the
statement of percentages is given in Table I.

Table I. — Moisture content and vxight per measured hmhel of samples of oats before and

after bleacldng.

■* »v5v/75r

/
/
/

/

\
\

\

/

\

/

\

/

\

/

1

Fig. 2.— Diagram comparing tlie grades of oats before and
after bleaching.

Moisture content (per cent).

Weight per measured bushel
(pounds).

Stage of process.

Maxi-
mum.

Mini-
mum.

Average.

Average
increase.

Maxi-
mum.

Mini-
mum.

Average.

Average
decrease.

14
15.6

10
11. ti

11.38
13.17

32
30.5

24.75
23

27.46
26. 12

After bleacbine

1.79

1.34

The average increase in moisture, due to the bleaching, without
deducting the loss due to evaporation in handling between the bleacher,
the elevator, and the car (0.50 of 1 per cent), was 1.79 per cent. The
relative increase in moisture was not constant, the variations being
due largely to different methods of operating the various bleachers as
well as to the quality and condition of the grain l)efore bleaching.

In this connection it must be borne in mind that within certain
limits an increase in moisture content results in a decrease of the
weight per measured bushel. In the samples used in these investiga-
tions the average decrease in weight per bushel was 1.34 pounds as
compared with an average increase in moisture content of 1.79 per
cent. The ditierence in individual samples is graphically shown in

ICir. 74]

8

SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMERCIAL OATS AXD BARLEY.

detail in the upper portion of lig-ure 3, and the weights per measured
bushel before and after bleaching are given in Table I. The average
decrease in the weight per bushel due to the addition of moisture
during the process of bleaching was 1.34 pounds; however, this de-
crease in weight per bushel was not sufficient to prevent the oats from
being given a higher grade on account of the improvement in appear-
ance after bleaching, as shown in figure 2.

3/

30

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23

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Fig. 3. — Diagram comparing the moisture content and the weight per measured bushel of oats before

and after bleaching.

ODOR BEFORE AND AFTER BLEACHING.

Commercial oats, as thej reach the grain markets, vary greatly in
quality, condition, and color. The odors range from a natural odor
common to oats when harvested under favorable conditions down
through a series of odors acquired from various weeds, the most com-
mon of which is the ragweed, and from different kinds of damage,
such as "ground damage," mold, heat damage, etc.

The sulphur bleaching of oats changes these odors and generally
removes or overcomes them entireh^ leaving a strong sulphurous-acid

[Cir. 74]

SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMERCIAL OATS AND BARLEY. 9

odor when the oats are freshly bleached. The odor of sulphurous acid
has a tendency to disappear, especially as the oats become drier. The
absence of the odors commonly found in natural oats usually arouses
suspicion that they have been bleached; therefore, in order to supply
the desired odor and to make the detection of sulphur-bleached oats
difficult or impossible by physical examination, it is a common practice
to mix unbleached oats with bleached oats. The mixed grain is seldom
questioned as having been bleached; nevertheless, a trace of sulphurous
acid remains and may be detected by subjecting the grain to a simple,
qualitative, chemical test recommended by Carroll,'^

GROWTH OF FUNGI RETARDED BY BLEACHING.

Mrs. Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist in Charge of Pathological Col-
lections, Bureau of Plant Industry, made tests of samples taken from
six lots of oats and barley, before and after bleaching, in order to
ascertain how the bleaching process affects the fungi commonly found
on the grain, of which the following is a partial report:

The contents of all tubes were agitated in water, which was then added to steril-
ized culture media in petri dishes, 8 dishes being prepared from each number.
These cultures now clearly demonstrate the fact that the process of bleaching inhib-
its the development of fungi, as the number of species is greatly reduced. Their
growth is not only greatly retarded, but it is in no instance so luxuriant, even with
the same species, as in the cultures made from the unbleached grain.

Unless the grain is properly cooled and dried after having been
bleached it will contain an excess of heat and moisture, two factors
favorable for the growth of fungi, which may result in the deteriora-
tion of the grain. On the other hand, since the fungi are partly
destroyed and their growth retarded by the sulphur-bleaching process,
it is probable that bleached grain will carry a higher percentage of
moisture without danger of deterioration than unbleached grain of the
same quality. Observations on grain in commerce seem to indicate
that this is true.

GERMINATION REDUCED BY BLEACHING.

As bleached oats and barley are frequently selected for seeding
purposes because of their exceptionally bright appearance, germina-
tion tests were made of both grains before and after bleaching in order
to ascertain whether or not the vitality is affected by the bleaching
process. The results of these tests are given in Table II.

o Carroll, W. P. A Simple Method of Detecting Sulphured Barley and Oats. Cir-
cular 40, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909.
[Cir. 74]

10 SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMERCIAL OATS AND BARLEY.
Table IL — Vitality of oats and barley before and after bleaching.

Kind of
grain and

Final test, end of

sixth day (per

cent).

Kind of

grain and

laboratory

No.

Final test, end of

sixth day (per

cent).

Kind of

grain and

laboratory

No.

Final test, end of

sixth day (per

cent).

laboratory
No.

Before
bleach-
ing.

After
bleach-
ing.

Before
bleach-
ing.

After
bleach-
ing.

Before
bleach-
ing.

After
bleach-
ing.

Oats:

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10. ......

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

92. 5
90.0
90.5
95.0
90.0
66.5
90.5
83.5
92.5
90.0
75.0
88.5
85.5
92.5
78.0
92.5
83.5
95.5
87.0
95.5

89.5
78.5
82.5
86.5
81.0
35. 5
69.0
94.0
90.0
90.0
96.5
87.0

0.

9.0
.25

1.0
86.0
82.5
55.6
84.0

Oats— Con.

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33.......

34

35

36

37

Average
for oats . .

73.0
79.0
98.5
88.5
87.0
84.5
89.5
99.0
33.0
93.5
95.0
95.0
89.0
77.5
93.0
99.5
87.0

77.0
67.0
98.0
73.0
74.5
82.5
71.0
SO. 5
21.5
73.0
95.5
53.5
40.0
60.0
94.0
87.5
74.5

Barlev:

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

Ill

112

113

114

115

116

Average
for barley

84.5
94.0
97.5
96.5
97.5
96.0
78.5
91.0
91.5
94.0
90.0
95.0
89.5
94.0
94.0
84.0

83.0
46.5
97.5
97.5
94.5
97.5
67.0
76.7
94.0
37.5
90.5

5.5
96.5
97.0

5.0
89.0

18

97.72

19

20

86. 92

68.14

73.45

According to Arthur,'' ))leached oats upon which experiments were
made for the purpose of removing smut from seed grain showed 9 per
cent less germination than those that had not been treated with sul-
phurous acid.

From Table II it will be noted that an average of 86.92 per cent of
the kernels of the unbleached oats germinated, whereas an average of
only 68.14 per cent of the sulphur-bleached kernels germinated, being
an average of 18.78 per cent less germination in the sulphur-bleached
than in the unbleached oats.

With barley the percentage of germination was also found to be
lowered by the treatment. As shown in Table II, the average germi-
nation of the unbleached barlej'' was 91.72 per cent, while the average
of the sulphur-bleached barley was only 73.15 per cent, being 18.27
per cent lower than the unbleached barle3\ In a few instances, it will
be noted, the percentage of germination of the bleached grain was
decidedly lower than the check, which is accounted for by the fact that
these particular lots had been twice bleached, showing that the vitality
of the grain is reduced in proportion to the severity of the treatment.

FEEDING EXPERIMENT WITH BLEACHED AND UNBLEACHED OATS.

In these investigations no attempt was made to determine the effect
of sulphur-bleached oats on the health of animals. However, for the
purpose of ascertaining whether or not horses would eat sulphur-

a Arthur, J. C. Bulletin 103, Agricultural Experiment Station, Purdue University,
Lafayette, Ind., 1905.
[Cir. 74]

SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMERCIAL OATS AND BARLEY. 11

bleached oats as readil}' as unbleached oats, a feeding experiment was
carried on at the Arlington Experiment Farm, near Washington, D. C,
in cooperation with Prof. L. C. Corbett, Horticulturist in Charge,
with two teams of farm horses and one team of carriage horses used
by the Department of Agriculture.

The tirst part of the experiment extended through a period of 15
days and was confined to 2 teams of horses, which were being worked
on the farm at the time, after which, for a 5-day period, the carriage
team was fed. Sulphur- bleached and unbleached oats in equal (juan-
tities were fed in separate boxes at the same time to each horse of the
3 teams. In order to exclude a possible error due to the convenience
in the positions of the feed boxes, which were placed side by side, the
bleached and unbleached oats were fed in different boxes on alternate
days. It was observed that each horse ate the bleached oats as readily
as the unbleached oats. Frequently the horses ate from the boxes
alternately, so that they finished eating both the bleached and the
unbleached oats at practically the same time.

PROFITS RESULTING FROM BLEACHING.

There are two sources through which a profit is derived by the
process of bleaching oats. (1) By purchasing low grades of oats, im-
proving their appearance, and selling them at approximately'^ the
price of unbleached oats of similar appearance, and (2) by increasing
the original weight by the addition of moisture during the bleaching
process.

GAIN BY IMPROVED APPEARANCE.

From a comparison of the grades before and after bleaching, as
shown in figure 2, it is obvious that sulphur-bleached oats bring a
higher price than unbleached oats because of the improvement in ap-
pearance brought about by the bleaching. In order to ascertain to
what extent prices are increased by bleaching, the market value of the
bleached oats from the standpoint of appeai-ance was compared with
the prices current for the various grades of oats on "track" on the
davs when the bleaching was done.

As shown in figure 4 the range in price before and after treatment
was not alwa3S constant. This was due largely to the variation in
efficienc}' of the bleaching processes employed at the various places
where the samples were collected. On the basis of the before-men-
tioned oat quotations, before bleaching, the minimum price per bushel
was 49 cents; the maximum, 55 cents; and the average, 52.39 cents.
After bleaching, the minimum price per bushel was olh cents; the
maximum, 56 cents; and the average, 53.96 cents. An average in-
crease in price of 1.73 cents per bushel was due to bleaching.

[Cir. 74]

12 SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMEECIAL OATS AND BAELEY.

GAIN BY INCREASED MOISTURE CONTENT.

As shown in figure 3, the average increase in moisture by bleaching
was 1.79 per cent, as determined by samples taken as the grain was
being drawn from the bleaching tower. It was found, however, that
in "running" and cooling the oats prior to loading into cars, approxi-
matel}' one-half of 1 per cent of moisture was lost by evaporation,
leaving a net increase in the moisture content of 1.29 per cent, which
is equivalent to 1.48 per cent increase in weight.*^

NET GAIN RESULTING FROM BLEACHING.

The cost of bleaching grain with sulphur depends largely upon the
facilities available for handling and the quantity of grain bleached.

The average capacity
of a bleacher is about
3,000 bushels per hour.
The cost of the sulphur
(20 to 30 pounds) re-
quired to bleach 1,000
bushels of grain should
not exceed 50 cents.
The steam required for
the process is not an
expensive item, as it
is usually at hand for
running other elevator
machinery. From esti-
mates obtained from
various persons engaged in this line of work the cost of bleach-
ing, when the plants are running full eapacit}', varies from about one-
eighth to one-quarter of 1 cent per bushel.

Computed on a basis of 54 cents per bushel for the oats (the average
price at the time of bleaching), the gain in weight of 1.48 per cent
shows an average gain in the price received of 0.78 of 1 cent per
bushel from the addition of moisture alone, which, added to the aver-
age gain of 1.73 cents per bushel from advanced grades by reason of
the improved appearance of the oats, shows an average gross gain of
2.51 cents per bushel. Deducting from this the greatest estimated
cost of bleaching (one-quarter of 1 cent per bushel), the net profit due
to the process of bleaching would be 2.26 cents per bushel, which, on
the average carload of 1,600 bushels, would amount to $36.

o Circular 32, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, entitled
"Moisture Content and Shrinkage of Grain," explains the reason for this difference
and how it is calculated.
[Cir. 74)

O.SS

/ Z ^ ■^ S

€ 7 & B

/
/
/
/

V

\

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s

1
1

t

1
If

/

>

~ -

V

/
/

N.

1 1

/ /
/ /

\

/

/

"0

1 '■"

\i o.s-/
^ o.so

/

/
/
t

r /

\

/

>«

/

\

f

\

/

/

\

/

S£:/=-0^£- Si.£-M\C/-///V^

O.'^B

^

Fig. 4.— Diagram comparing the price per bushel of oats
before and after bleaching.

SULPHUR BLEACHING OF COMMERCIAL OATS AND BARLEY. 13

SUMMARY.

(1) Oats and barley of inferior quality and condition may be made
to resemble that of a better quality by bleaching.

(2) A profit is derived not onh^ from changing the appearance of
the grain but also by increasing the original weight by the addition
of moisture.

(3) Because of the fungi being partially destroA^ed by the bleaching
it is probable that bleached oats will carry a higher moisture content
than unbleached oats with less danofer of deterioration.

(4) The vitality of oats and barley is impaired b}^ bleaching and a
heavy bleaching is especially harmful.

(5) Preliminary feeding experiments with both bleached and natural
oats showed that horses ate one as readily as the other.

Approved:

Ja3ies Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, I). C, Dcceinher 10^ 1910.

[Cir. 74]

o

iBsued Miireh 16, 1911

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 75.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

AGRICULTURAL SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS

IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. l.brarv

NEW YORK.

botanicau

OAROB^*

BY

E. H. THOMSON,

Expert, Office of Farm Management,

IN Cooperation with the New Hampshire College

Agricultural Experiment Station.

75551° — Cir. 75 — 11 Washington : government printing office ; i9ii

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Taylor.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.
[Cir. 75]

2

B. P. I.— 641.

AGRICULTURAL SURVEY OF FOUR TOWN-
SHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

INTRODUCTION.!

The agriculture of New England has undergone very marked
changes within the last 50 years. Previous to 1860 the area of im-
proved farm land increased, but upon the opening of cheap land in
the West large areas of New England farm land commenced to revert
to forest. This change was desirable on some areas that were cleared
in early days and which never were adapted to farming purposes.
The popular belief that New England farm land is a deserted waste
is untrue, as the much-talked-of abandoned farms that are commonly
pictured as lying idle, with bare fields growing up to weeds, are not to
be found. On these farms, many of which are abandoned agricul-
turally, nature has been remarkably quick to start reforestation.
No one in traveling through the New England States can fail to note
the large area of woodland as compared to the improved farm land.
The 1899 census figures for New Hampshire show only 29 per cent of
the State to be in improved land, wliich means that the other 71 per
cent is practically all in forest. The curve in figure 1, showing the
increase in the area of unimproved farm land, is an index of the extent
to which tliis country has become reforested.

PURPOSE OF THE SURVEY.

A farm survey was undertaken during 1909 by the New Hampshire
College Agricultural Experiment Station and the Office of Farm
Management of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States
Department of Agriculture. The purpose of the survey was to
determine the relative condition of the farms in the region, the pre-

i During 1909, at the request of the New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station, Mr. Thom-
son was assigned to make a careful study of the equipment, expenses, and income on the farms in four
townships In southern New Hampshire. These townships were selected as representative areas for that
section of the State. The expenses of this investigation were borne jointly by the Department of Agricul-
ture and the New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station. The results are of much interest
in connection with the general status of agriculture in that section and they also furnish valuable data
concerning the relative profltablenessofseveraltypes of farming.— Wm. A. Taylor, Acting Chief of Bureau.

[Clr. 75] 3

SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

vailing types of farming, and the profitableness of these types for
that section; also to learn the distribution of capital, income, and
expenses, so as to gain a correct view of the agriculture as it now
exists. The plan of the work was to visit personally each farmer
within a certain area and obtain from him the information desired.
In tliis way fairly accurate data were collected and these were checked
up by careful inspection on the part of the person making the survey.

ACCURACY OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED.

The information obtained has been carefully tabulated and aver-
aged so that the re-
sults as given may be
considered fairly ac-
curate. This accu-
racy depends on the
law of averages. For
instance, the individ-
ual farmer in giving
the amount of his ex-
penses for the year
might make a consid-
erable error, but he is
just as apt to overes-
timate as to under-
estimate. According
to the law of aver-
ages, therefore, when
a considerable num-
ber of farms are taken
into consideration
the amount of the
overestimate will
about equal the
amount of underesti-
mate, so that the av-
erage is for practical
purposes fairly accu-
rate.

To explain tliis a httle more fully, suppose that a hundred men
who know something of the weight of horses estimate the weight of a
given horse. Some of them will estimate too much and others too
little. But if the men have a fair idea of the weight of horses the
average of all their estimates will be very close to the correct weight
of the horse. The figures here given are in each case only averages
of a considerable number of farms.

[Cir. 75]

2.4

2.2

2.0

C 1.8

^ 1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

'

*

1

.^A

N..i2£;J^

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1

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y

1
1

1

f

\

1

1

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1

1
1

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.1

t

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1
1

1

1

5

1
•

/
/
/

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/

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J50 I860 1870 1880 If

J90 19

00

Fig. 1.— Diagram showing the decrease in improved and the increase
in unimproved farm land in New Hampshire from 1850 to 1900.
(U. S. Census.)

SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 5

AREA SURVEYED.

The area selected for the survey was a group of four townships in
the southern part of Ilillsboro County, N. II, They represent a
typical locality in the southern portion of the State, extending from
the Nashua River on the east to the higher and rougher land on the
west. The town ' of Ilollis may be considered to be an upland town,
partially surrounded by a belt of lowland made up of sandy soils.
All the central part of this town is devoted to varied types of farming,
while to the west and north are considerable areas of woodland.
Amherst lies directly north of Hollis and extends to the town of New
Boston on the north. This town includes two types of agricultural
land, part of it being river bottom with many varieties of soil, while
all the western and northern part of the town is more or less hilly,
Milford, the smallest in area, includes considerable hilly land in the
southern part and the wide valley of the Souhegan River. The soils
in this river valley are considerably heavier than those on most of
the low land. Lyndeboro is distinctly an upland town, having
practically no low lands, and is of a rough, hilly nature. Its soils on
the whole are heavier than those in the Merrimac Valley or sand plain.

In all the towns the types of farming vary widely. Fruit growing
is confined cliiefly to Hollis and Lyndeboro, poultry raising to Mil-
ford, while dairying is practiced about equally in all the four towns.
One of the chief objects of the survey was to study the relation
between these types of farming.

The agriculture of the region as a whole is as varied as its topog-
raphy and its soils. No one type of farming predominates and no
system of definite rotations is found. In fact the farming operations
of the region are merely remnants of the system which was prevalent
50 years ago. Everywhere one finds examples where habit has con-
tinued a type of farming long after that type has ceased to be profit-
able. A farmer who has grown up with the agriculture of the com-
munity is slow to see that his type of farming is no longer suited to
present conditions. The results shown in some of the tables that
follow bear out this statement.

The tables are arranged (1) to show a comparison of the farms in
the different towns and (2) to compare the different types of farming.
A farm is classed with a particular type if 50 per cent or more of its
income is derived from the products characteristic of that type.

METHODS OF CALCULATION USED.

The capital or investment is the average inventory for two years
of the real estate and equipment that the farmer owns.

' The word "town " Is used here In the sense In which It Is commonly used In New England. In this sense
It ia synonymous with the word "township" as used in most parts of the United States.
[Clr. 75]

6 SURVEY OP FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

The receipts include all the cash receipts plus any increase in the
value of the property at the end of the year.

The expenses include all cash paid out plus an}^ decrease in the
value of property; the value of the labor by members of the family
other than the farmer is not added to the expenses, but is stated as a
separate item and must be deducted from the farm income when
determining the amount that the owner receives for his labor. No
household or personal expenses are included except the value of
board furnished to hired help.

The farm income represents the difference between the receipts and
expenses. It is not net profit to the owner, for the interest on the
investment and the value of the family labor have not been deducted.

The labor income represents the farmer's salary or what he makes
as a result of his own labor after deducting 5 per cent on the invest-
ment. To illustrate, suppose a farmer's labor income is S400; tliis
means that he has made 5 per cent on the investment and in addition
has cleared $400 above all farm expenses, besides having the use of
the house, fuel, and water, and such farm products as were consumed
in the house.

To find the per cent on investment which a farmer makes, the pay
for his own labor and that of his family must be deducted. Assuming
that $300 is a reasonable allowance for the actual labor which a
farmer does, if $300 is deducted for the owner's labor and also the
value of his family's labor from the farm income and the remainder is
then di\dded by the average investment, the result is the per cent wliich
the farmer has made as a result of his farming operations for the year.

RESULTS OF THE SURVEY.

Throughout the whole region surveyed, and the same holds true
throughout the State, the acreage of tillable land is very small.
Furthermore, the tillable land on each farm is usually made up of
small, irregular fields. Extensive cultivation of large areas is
impossible.
Table I. — Average areas, capital, receipts, expenses, and profits for 266 farms, by towns.

Items covered by survey.

Area acres. .

Tillable area do

Capital invested

Receipts

Expenses

Farm income

Interest on investment, at 5 per cent

Unpaid family labor

Labor income, after deducting 5 per cent interest on
investment

Wages per day (.313 days) ^

Profit on investment ($300 for owner's labor de-
ducted)

Amherst

HoUis

Lynde-

Milford

(GO

(95

boro (43

(68

farms).

farms).

farms).

farms).

127

97.3

139.3

86.4

31.1

37.8

30.1

25.4

$5,008.00

$5,401.00

$6, 006. 00

$5, 130. 00

1,323.00

1,5,34.00

2,059.00

1,. 575. 00

808.00

919. 00

1,191.00

881.00

515.00

615. 00

868.00

694.00

250.00

270.00

303. 00

2,56. 00

27.00

61.00

68. 00

43.00

238.00

284.00

497.00

395.00

.76

.91

1.58

1.25

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

3.8

4.7

8.2

6.8

Average

(266
farms).

108

31.9

$5,350.00

1,582.00

928.00

654.00

267.00

50.00

337.00
1.07
Per cent.
5.7

[Cir. 75]

SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 7

In Table I the wages per day are figured from the labor income on
a basis of 313 days. Many hired men on farms receive $30 a month,
which averages SI. 15 for each working day, together with room and
board. The average farmer in these four towns receives $1.07 per
day, his house rent, and what the farm produces toward his own
living. It must be remembered, however, that if the farmer owns
his farm, thus having no interest to pay, he will have the amount of
this interest in addition to use for living expenses. Aside from the
266 farms from which complete records were obtained there were in
the four townships 156 other farms, which have been divided into the
four following classes:

(1) There were 28 vacant farms, a few of which were partly woid<;ed
by neighbors, but others were entirely abandoned agriculturally.

(2) There were 62 farms on which persons were living but doing
practically no farm work. Most of those in this class had a garden,
kept one horse and a cow, and perhaps had a small tillable field from
which they cut hay enough for the horse and the cow.

(3) There were 41 farms the owners of which worked the greater
part of all of the year at other than farm work. Many teamsters are
in this class. A few of them did some farming, but the greater part
of their income was from sources not connected with farming
operations.

(4) There were 25 farmers who were doing some real farm work,
but from whom the records received were not complete enough to be
used in the tabulations. Four of this number were on rented farms,
and nearly all of the others had moved to the farm within a year, so
that a complete yearly record was not available.

The average size of these 156 farms is about 80 acres, with a very
small percentage of tillable land.

Table II. — Average distribution of investment of capital on 266 farms, by towns.

Num-
ber of
farms.

Real estate.

Machinery.

Live stock.

Miscellaneous.

Total
capital.

Town.

Value.

Per
cent.

Value.

Per
cent.

Value.

Per
cent.

Value.

Per
cent.

Amherst.. . .

60
95
43
68

$3,784
4,162
4,729
3,989

76

77
78
78

$265
365
408
273

5

7
7
5

$775
776
812
739

15
14
13
14

$184

98

117

129

4
2
2
3

$5,008

HoUis

5,401

Lyndeboro

6,066

Milford

5,130

Average for 266
farms

4,124

77

311

6

772

14

128

3

5,. 350

Table II shows that the distribution of capital is very uniform in
the towns. The average farmer has practically three-fourths of his
capital in real estate, including permanent improvements, and one-
fourth in equipment. The amount that each farmer has in each

[Clr. 75]

8 SUEVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

item varies somewhat in the different towns, but the percentage or
proportionate amount in each item is practically identical. In a
survey of 178 farms in the State of New York, by Mr. M. C. Burritt,
the results of which are published in Bulletin 271 of the Cornell
University Agricultural Experiment Station, he found that the
average farmer had invested 77 per cent in real estate, 14 per cent in
live stock, 5 per cent in machinery and tools, and 4 per cent in
miscellaneous items.

Table 111.— Average distribution of profits on 266 farms in their relation to capital

invested.

Labor income.

From
From
From
From
From
From
From

-$000 to
to
201 to
401 to
601 to
801 to 1,000.
1,001 to 2,000.

-$1.
200.
400.
(iOO.
800.

Capital.

Number
of farms.

$4,660

80

4,665

52

4,271

46

4,874

29

5,799

18

6,456

13

9,906

28

The distribution of profits in Table III shows that some farmers are
receiving very good salaries for their work, while on the other hand
nearly one-third of them receive an income insufficient to pay 5 per
cent on the capital invested, to say nothing of additional pay for
their own time and labor. The statement of some farmers that they
work for nothing is shown to be true in many cases.

Table IV. — Average income from different sources on 266 farms, by towns.

Source of income.

Crop:

Apples

Potatoes

Hay

Lumber and wood . .
Miscellaneous crops.

Total crop receipts .

Live stock and miscellaneous:

Sales of live stock

Milk and butter

Eggs

Inventory increase

Outside labor

Summary — (percentages):

Crops

Live stock

Live-stock products

Inventory increase

Outside labor

Amherst

HoUis

Lynde-

Milford

(60

(95

boro (43

(68

farms).

farms).

farms).

farms).

$38

$186

$239

$47

27

24

11

12

16

89

15

41

68

82

234

86

41

124

195

27

190

505

694

213

152

168

222

235

612

553

712

537

137

137

295

501

50

50

40

39

183

121

95

49

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

14.3

32.8

33.7

13.5

11.4

10.8

10.7

15.3

56.6

45.0

48.9

65.6

3.7

3.2

1.9

2.5

13.8

7.8

4.6

3.0

Table IV shows from what crops the average farmer in the portion
of New Hampshire under consideration receives most of liis income.
The receipts from lumber and wood are significant of the area of un-
improved land. The fact that the two towns of Holhs and Lynde-

[Cir. 75]

SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE, 9

boro are mostly upland explains their income from apples. Milford
has an unusually large number of poultry men as shown by the
amount received from the sale of eggs in that town.

By outside labor is meant receipts from hauling or any other out-
side work performed at odd times. There seems to be some relation
between the proportion of outside work which a farmer does and his
profits. In other words, it would appear that farmers who are not
making enough money at farming gradually let their farm business
go and take up teaming, thus changing from farmers to laborers.
The large percentage of total receipts coming from stock and stock
products shows that Hve stock is the basis of the agriculture in this
region.

Table V indicates the expenditures in connection with the man-
agement of these farms.

Table V.— Average distribution of expenses on 266 farms, by towns.

Amherst

(00
farms).

Hollis

(95
farms).

Lynde-
boro (43
fanns).

Milford

(08
fanns).

Average (206 farms).

Object of outlay.

Amount.

Per cent.

Labor

«187
405
12
20
28
59
97

$280
377
15
48
25
36
138

$237

512

28

18

79

173

144

$139

558

14

13

28
57
72

$216
451
16
28
35
69
113

23

49

Hay

2

Fprtilizer

3

Tiivp *;tork

4

7

Miscellaneous

12

Total

808

919

1,191

881

928

100

The expenses for labor include only the paid labor and the board
of laborers. The very large decrease in the value of farms in the town
of Lyndeboro is due
to the large sales of
lumber in that town,
thus bringing down
the inventoried farm
value for the second
year. A'^ery often
one hears a farmer
say that he pays out
everything for fertil-
izer, but tliis expense
is comparatively in-
significant if com-
pared with the amount paid out for western grain. The exceedingly
large expenditure for this item is partly explained by the charts shown
in figures 2 and 3. On the other hand, figure 3 shows that the quan-
tity of hay and forage produced in recent years has, on the whole,
increased.

75551°— Cir. 75—11 2

§650

K

1

^600,

1

R50

)

A

r -J

2

^

/

/

V

/

/

\_

/

/

^

k

/

/

^

/

Y

^

/

U

iSP I860 1870 1880 1890 19

00

Fig. 2.— Diagram showing the total production of hay and forage in
New Hampshire from 1850 to 1900. (U. S. Census.)

10 SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Table Nl.— Average area, capital, receipts, expenses, and profits for 266 farms, by types

of farming.

Items covered by survey.

Area acres. .

Tillable area do

Capital invested

Receipts

Expenses, including unpaid family labor

Interest at 5 per cent

Labor income

Profit on investment per cent. .

Dairy (118

Poultry (40

Fruit (9

farms).

farms).

farms).

133.7

65.4

45.7

37.6

18.2

21.1

S6, 134

$4,066

$4,730

$1,633

$1,754

$2,300

$1,071

$1,072

$908

$306

$203

$236

$256

$479

$1,156

4.27

9.39

23.08

General (99
farms).

100.1
31.6

$4,972

$1,386

$838

$248

S300

5.0

In Table VI the farms are classified according to the sources of
income.! Tj-^g ^je difference in the profits between some of the
types would seem to indicate that under present conditions poultry
and fruit growing are much better adapted to that locahty than
either dairying or general farming. The results shown under the

heading of fruit
farms can not be
taken as fairly rep-
resentative of that
type, because of the
few farms in that
class. But there is
every reason to be-
lieve that the fruit
industry is particu-
larly well suited to
portions of southern
New Hampshire and
should be given spe-
cial attention. Inas-
much as dairying
and general farming are usually associated with extensive farming
operations, these types are limited in this respect by the rugged
character of the country.

The figures in Table VI should not be taken to indicate that dairy
farming is not a desirable type of farming. One of the troubles is
that the farms in this region are too small for dairy and general
farming. If their area was larger so that the farmer could either
raise his own grain or else raise hay — which, under existing circum-
stances, is very high priced in New Hampshire — and thereby have
an income to offset the enormous grain bills shown in Table V, even
these dairy farms. would show a satisfactory profit. More intensive

1

|2.0

1.5
li

^

\

^^

X

t'^

X

\

f**,^^

^*"^

K

\

\

\

\

\

>

k.

\

\

\

X

550 l£

(60 If

i70 le

«o le

190 IS

00

Fig. 3.— Diagram showing the total production of cereals in New
Hampshire from 1850 to 1900. (U. S. Census. )

1 Average prices of farm products during 1908, in the region surveyed: Milk, Z\ cents a quart; eggs, 28 to
32 cents a dozen; hay, the better grades, $20 a ton; concentrated mill feed, $30 a ton.
[Cir. 75]

SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

11

cultural methods and better cows would also increase the profits in
dairy farming. Table V shows that the grain bill averages 49 per
cent of the total expenses of the farms in the four townships. Raising
the grain would probably cost much less than buying it, but on the
other hand enough hay can be grown on the same land to more than
buy the ecjuivalent of the grain that could be raised there. It is in
this direction that the chief difficulty lies, as the farms are so small
that there is not enough land on which to raise either grain or hay.
It must be understood, however, that there are many farms of each
type that are very successful and that are yielding their owners a
good profit.

Another phase of farming which has not been mentioned, but
which is very important in many respects, is the farm wood lot.
There are large areas of nonagricultural land throughout New Hamp-
shire which should be kept in woodland. Many such areas have
been cleared in the past and are now being rapidly reforested. This
nonagricultural land, which should grow timber, must not be con-
fused Avith tillable or pasture land which has been partly depleted of
its crop-producing power, and which in many cases is being left to
grow up to bushes. A good- system of forest management should
be given special attention in many parts of the State.

Table Y 11. — Comparison of average areas, capital, receipts, expenses, and profits for the

better and the poorer dairy farms.

Items covered by survey.

Area acres

Tillable area do . .

Capital invested

Receipts

Expenses

Unpaid family labor

Labor income

Better 01

Poorer 57

farms.

farms.

145

122

42.6

32.2

$6,712

«5,5]5

2,162

1,068

1,175

861

43

52

608

-121

Average.

134

38

S6. 134

1,633

1,024

47

256

By com])aring various factors on the better and poorer farms of
each type, it is possible to learn where one succeeded and the other
failed. The dairy farms are divided into two classes according
to the labor incomes. All those receiving a labor income of $200 or
more are placed in the better class, while those having a labor income
of less than $200 are included in the poorer class. The most striking
difference between the two, as shown by Table VII, is in the gross
receipts, the better farmers taking in more than twice as much as the
poorer ones. Furthermore, the expenses of the better dairymen,
although larger than those of the poorer, were not at all in the same
proportion as the receipts. The better dairymen earneil, on the
average, $608 for their year's work after all their expenses, interest,
and family labor were paid, while the poorer dairymen lacked $121

[Cir. 75]

12 SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN" SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

of coming out even. Such results lead to further inquiry into the
true conditions of the dairy farm.

Table VIII. — Average distribution of investment of total capital on the better and the

poorer dairy farms.

Capital invested in-

Better CI farms.

Poorer 57 farms.

Value.

Per cent.

Value.

Per cent.

Real estate

84,885
385
786
393
2G3

72.8
5.7

11.7
5.9
3.9

$4,219
329
473
352
142

76.5

Machinery

5.9

Dairy cattle

8.6

other live stock

6.4

Miscellaneous

2.6

Total

6,712

100.0

5,515

100.0

Table VIII shows that the average dairy farmer of the better class
has a smaller proportion of his capital invested in real estate than one
of the other class, owing to his having more invested in live stock.
The only important difference in the distribution of capital on the
better and the poorer classes of farms is in the amount invested in
dairy cattle. It would seem that one of the reasons why the recei])ts
are so small on the poorer farms is that they do not have enough
dairy cows. They have the machinery and the live stock, such as
horses, but have not the cows, which are the producing factor on an
ordinary dairy farm. In this connection the size of the farm is
one of several controlling factors as to the number of cows that a
successful dairyman can keep. Referring to Table VII, it is found
that the unsuccessful dairymen have one-fourth less area of tillable
land than the successful ones. They do not have tillable land enough
to support the fixed stock and also to keep a sufficient number of
dairy cows to earn a satisfactory income. Whether or not the
farmer should increase the size of his farm in order to have more cows
or whether he should practice more intensive methods of culture,
thereby obtaining larger crop yields, are matters which must be
settled by each farmer according to his own individual judgment.

Table IX. — Average of various factors showing the relation between the better and the

poorer dairy farms.

Items covered by survey.

Number of cows per farm

Tillal)le area per cow acres

Receipts per cow

Receipts from dairy products for each dollar invested In dairy cattle ,

Expenses for grain

Cash paid for grain for each dollar invested in all live stock

Expense for labor, not including family labor

Receipts from crops

Better 01

Poorer 57

farms.

farms.

15. CO

10.00

2.70

3.20

$89. 00

S07. 00

1.94

1.64

551.00

410.00

.40

.50

341.00

227. 00

282. 00

119. 00

[Cir. 75]

SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 13

Table IX shows that not only has the average dairyman of the
poorer class one-third fewer cows than the average of the better, but
the receii)ts per cow are one-fourth less than those of the better ones —
a difference of $22 per cow. This fact alone makes a difference of
$220 a 3^ear. That the poorer dairymen are not spending all their
time and energy in other farm work is shown by the receipts from
crops, the better receiving $282, while the poorer receive $119. A
small number of poor cows seems to go with a few poor crops. To
summarize, it seems that the lower returns on these poorer dairy
farms result from smaller farms, poorer cows, lower crop yields, and
poorer farming in general.

The proportionate expense for concentrated feeds is nearly the same
for both classes. This fact does not account for the small profit of
the poorer class.

Table X. — Comparison of average areas, capital, receipts, expenses, and profits for the

better and the poorer poultry farms .

Items covered by survey.

Area, acres

Capital invested

Receipts

Expenses

Unpaid family labor

Labor income

Better 20

Poorer 20

farms.

farms.

75

55

$4,902

$3,. 3.30

2,718

790

1,445

583

93

22

935

19

The poultry farms were divided according to the labor income;
the 20 farms which are placed in the better class received a labor
income of $300 or more, while the poorer 20 each received less than
$300. Table X indicates that the average poultry man of the better
class is doing better, partly at least because of larger business. His
gross receipts are three and one-third times as great and his expenses
are two and one-third times as great as the average of the poorer
class.

Table XI. — Average distribution of investment of capital on the better and poorer poultry

farms.

Capital Invested In-

Better 20 farms.

Poorer 20 farms.

Value.

Per cent.

Value.

Per cent.

Real estate

$3,617
283
492
359
151

73.8
5.8

10.0
7.3
3.1

$2,700

153

186

211

80

81.1
4.6
5.6
6.3
2.4

Machinery

Ponltrv

Other live stock

Miscellaneous

Total

4,902

100.0

3,300

100.0

Table XI shows that the poorer poultry men have about all their
money in real estate, while those of the better class not only have

[Cir. 75]

14 SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

larger farms, but have live stock and equipment to run these farms.
The poorer 20 farmers do little or nothing, and get SI 9 a year for their
work. The better 20 farmers are utihzing the farm and equipment,
and receive S935 for their year's work.

Table XII. — Average of various factors showing the relation between the better and the

poorer poultry farms.

Items covered by survey.

Number of hens per farm

Receipts from poultry and poultry products sold for each dollar invested in poultry

Total sales of poultry and poultry products

Crop receipts ".

Expenditure for grain

Amount paid for grain per dollar invested in all live stock

Better 20
farms.

618

$4.39

2,145.00

288.00

1,138.00

1.33

Poorer 20
farms.

232

$3.30

613.00

102.00

420.00

1.06

According to Table XII the average poultry farmer of the poorer
class not only has a small number of hens, but does not take care of
what he has. The gross receipts for every dollar invested in poultry
can not be counted as the receipts from hens alone, because several
poultry men raised broilers, the receipts from which are all figured in
the amount given in the table. The poorer 20 poultry men, having
but a few hens to care for, might be expected to devote their time to
growing crops. That they do not do this is shown by the amount
received for crops by the two classes of farmers. Comparison of the
quantity of grain purchased does not show that the poorer men are
spending all their income for grain, but rather the reverse, the good
farmers spending proportionately more.

Table XIII. — Comparison of average areas, capital, receipts, expenses, and profits for the

better and the poorer general farms.

Items covered by survey.

Better 46
farms.

Poorer 53
farms.

Area

acres

108

35.2

$0,252

2,173

1,114

54

693

93

Tillable area

do

28.4

Capital invested

$3,861
703

Receipts .. .

Expenses

505

Unpaid family labor

47

Labor income

—42

The general farm represents variations or combinations of some of
tlie other types, as poultry and fruit or dairy and poultry.

There were 46 general farms which had a labor income above $150,
and 53 which were below this amount.

Table XIII gives the findings of the survey as applied to general
farming in the territory under consideration.

This type of farming follows the others in most respects. The
poorer men have considerably less capital and do very little work in
any one farming operation.

[Cir. 75]

SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 15

The general farmers have more invested in real estate than those
in any of the other types and less invested in hve stock, as shown by
a comparison of Table XIV with the table previously presented.

Table XIV. — Average distribution of investment of the capital on the better and the poorer

general farms.

Capital invested in-

Better 46 farms.

Poorer 53 farms.

Value.

Per cent.

Value.

Per cent.

Real estate

$4,911
381

768
192

78.6
6.1

12.3
3.0

$3,104

220

441

96

80.4

Maehinprv - •

. 5.6

11.4

Miscellaneous

2.6

Total

6,252

100

3,861

100

Some interesting comparisons are also given in Table XV in regard to
the relative quantities of grain bought and raised in connection with
tlie three different types of farming.

Table XV. — Comparison between the average quantity of grain bought and the average
quantity grown on farms of three different types.

Items of comparison.

Dairy farms.

Poultry farms.

General farms.

Better 61.

Poorer 57.

Better 20.

Poorer 20.

Better 46.

Poorer 53.

Cash paid for grain for each dollar invested
in live stocli

$0.46
.075

$0.50
.081

$1.33
.036

$1.06
.031

$0.53
.085

$0.51

Value of grain raised for each dollar in-
vested in live stock

.065

The value of the grain raised is figured at $30 per ton, or 1^ cents
per pound. Western competition in growing cheap grain during
the period of 1880-1900 was the means of getting New England
farmers out of the habit of growing their own grain. The buying
of grain has become so firmly fixed in their systems of farming that
although grain has almost doubled in price very little if any more is
at present grown on their farms. It was during the period of cheap
grain in the eastern markets that such large areas of farm lands were
allowed to revert to woodland. At the present time, when concen-
trated feed has increased in price, the average farmer tills only about
half the land that his father did. He has not the tillable land upon
which to raise grain or to raise other crops with which to buy grain.
With a yield of one ton of grain to the acre it would require more than
4,000 acres in grain to grow the equivalent of what was purchased
during the past year on the 266 farms. There is no question that
grain can be grown more cheaply on good tillable land in the East
than it can be bought at present prices. However, it is impossible
for the farmers in southern New Hampshire to raise anywhere near

[Cir. 75]

16 SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

enough concentrates on the present area of tillable land and yet keep
the same number of Hve stock. Furthermore, when hay is bringing
$20 a ton, and when it is necessary to pay S30 a ton for concentrated
feeds, it will not pay to raise the small grains on land that will grow
two tons of first-class hay to the acre, except as those grains are
grown in connection with a rotation of ensilage and a nurse crop for
reseeding. The results of this survey show that the quantity of grain
that the poorer farmer buys is not alone responsible for his low labor
income.

Table XVI shows the increase or decrease in the number of ani-
mals on the farms under consideration during a period of one year,
and the average value of these animals in the different towns.

Table XVI.-

-Comparison of total number and individual value of certain kinds of farm
animals on ^66 farms, by towns.

Items of comparison.

Number of cows on Apr. 1, 1908
Number of cows on Apr. 1, 1909

Average value per head

Number of fowls on Apr. 1, 1908
Number of fowls on Apr. 1, 1909

Average value per head

Number of horses

Average value per head

Amherst
(60 farms).

592

551

$38

4,934

4,862

$0.66

137

$115

Hollis
(95 farms).

756

700

$43

5,549

6,640

$0.77

252

$117

Lyndeboro
(43 farms).

429

427

$36

5,935

5.883

$0.68

96

$120

Milford
(68 farms).

468

433

$39

15.308

15, 932

$0.90

129

$121

Total (266
farms).

2,245
2,111

31,726
32, 317

614

Table XVI shows that the number of dairy cows has decreased in
every town, while the poultry, which has increased in two and
decreased in the other two towns, shows an increase in the total of
all the towns.

The table also shows some interesting data as to the average va lue
of the individual animals in the separate towns where one type of
farming is developed more than another.

Table XVII. — Average relation of the labor incomes to the ages of the fanners.

Labor income.

Average
age.

Number of
farms.

From —$500 to — $1

57.5
50.2
51
47

80

From to 400

98

From 401 to 800

47

From 801 to 2 000 -

41

52

266

The relation between the age of the farmer and his earning capacity
is set forth in Table XVII. A general correlation exists between
the ages of the farmers and their profits, but there are many excep-
tions to this rule. Not all the old men are losing money. It is
interesting to note what a large percentage of the farmers in that

[Cir. 75]

SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 17

region are over 50 years of age. The results would seem to show
that a farmer's greatest earning capacity is before he readies the
age of 50 years.

SYSTEMS OF FARMING.

When the farmers stopped raising grain some 30 years ago, they
let their fields stay down in grass very mucli longer than formerly
and eventually forgot all about a rotation of crops. A great many
fields when they would no longer yield a fair crop of hay were turned
into pasture. Young pine, as well as other trees, soon sprang up in
these pasture fields, and to-day, instead of tillable fields, they are
young forests. Thus it is that the farmers of this region have no
definite system of management. Their present rotation, if it may
be called such, is corn, oats for hay, and then hay from four to six
years. Sometimes corn is planted twice in succession, and a few
farmers let the oats ripen and thrash them. It is significant that
only one thrashing machine was found in all the four towns surveyed.
Many farmers follow the method of seeding after haying or after the
oats have been taken off for hay. One great fault of this method is
that clover is freciuently omitted from the seeding and is not added
the following spring. Many farmers stated that they were not sow-
ing clover at all. By neglecting to get a good stand of clover when-
ever their land is seeded they are making a vital mistake, for clover
is, without doubt, the basis of a successful rotation in this section.
Whatever practice is followed, a shorter rotation must be used if
the supply of humus is to be maintained in the lighter soils of this
region. It is very probable that the use of lime on most of the soils
in tliis territory would help materially in obtaining a stand of clover.

APPLICATION OF MANURE.

In the application of fertilizers in this portion of New Hampshire
the common practice is to put all the manure on the corn ground,
either plomng it under or harrowing it into the soil after plowing.
Each of these methods seems to have produced good results on the
corn crop. The trouble is that when all the manure is put on the
corn crop nothing more is put on that field until five or six years
later, when corn is again planted. A much better plan is not to
make such heavy applications to the corn land and to top-dress the
new seeding of clover with part of the manure.

FRUIT GROWING.

Very little fruit except strawberries is grown on the lowlands of
this region on account of the early and late frosts that are of frequent
occurrence in the valleys. Apples thrive especially well on the
uplands, and peaches and grapes are cultivated to a considerable

[Cir. 75J

18 SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

extent in a few localities. Many orchards are not carefully man-
aged. If spraying were universally practiced, it would mean greatly
increased returns to many farmers.

Fruit growing when properly carried on promises to be one of the
best types of farming for this region. Many instances were found
where a combination of fruit and poultry has proved very successful.

PASTURES.

To the dairymen and live-stock farmers of New Hampshire one
of the greatest problems is that of pasture. The topography of a
large proportion of eastern dairy farms is such that pasture land
can not be used for any other crop, and for this reason good, per-
manent grazing land is a necessity. The once fertile grazing lands
of all the southern part of the State are fast disappearing. No
attention has been given them and their loss is being sharply felt
by the dairymen. The usual excuse for their present condition is
that it pays better to let them grow up to pine, yet the common
value of land which is allowed to grow up to timber is not more
than $4 to S6 an acre. In this case the land suited to pasture should
not be confused with the areas that are adapted to nothing but
forest. Any crop which furnishes from 35 to 40 per cent of the
yearly maintenance of the cattle should receive attention. A good,
rich pasture not only furnishes a supply of roughage and concen-
trates for five months in the year but also provides this supply
at a very reasonable cost as compared with other crops.

With the present prices of all feeding stuffs, the next few years

will show more than ever the striking need of improvement of these

hillside grazing lands, and until they are restored to somewhere

near their former condition all live-stock farmers will seriously feel

their loss.

SUMMARY.

(1) The area of improved land in New Hampshire has decreased
rapidly within the last 40 years, the decrease from 1880 to 1900
being 54 per cent.

(2) The average farmer in the region surveyed received $337 for
his year's work, or at the rate of SI. 07 a day for 313 days.

(3) Dairying and general farming, even though they represent
81 per cent of the total number of farms, are not so profitable in
this region as either fruit or poultry, owing partly to the fact that
dairying and general farming require comparatively large areas for
their profitable operation, while in this section the farms are in the
main too small to yield satisfactory profits. Thus it would seem that
many of these farms should either be combined into larger ones or
changed to some type which is better adapted to a small area.

[Cir. 75]

SURVEY OF FOUR TOWNSHIPS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 19

(4) Fruit growing is especially well adapted to the uplands. This
industry promises to be one of the most profitable for that region.

(5) Poultry farming is yielding very satisfactory profits on many
of the farms investigated. It appears to be well suited to small
areas in both the valleys and uplands.

(6) A careful study of the conditions seems to show that a combi-
nation of fruit and poultry, especially winter egg production, would
be very satisfactory on many of the smaller hill farms.

(7) Inasmuch as several farmers engaged in each of the types of
farming are making good profits, it would seem that the particular
type is not so important as the management of the farm. At the
same time it is a matter of no small importance that the type of
farming should be adapted to the local conditions of topography,
soil, and markets.

(8) The most successful farmers are not as a rule following meth-
ods of farm practice different from those of the unsuccessful, but are
utilizing their land and equipment to much better advantage.

(9) The better farmers are making greater profits, not by spending
less but by taking in more.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary.

Washington, D. C, January 5, 1911,

[Clr. 75]

o

Issued March ao, lyil.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 76.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE RELATION OF CROWN-GALL TO
LEGUME INOCULATION.

LIBRAR^t

NEW YORJv

BOTANICAL

BY

KARL F. KELLERMAN,

Physiologist in Charge of Soil-Bacteriology and Water-Purification Investigations.

85091° Cir. 76 11 Washington : sovernment printing office : isn

tCir. 76]
2

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Taylor.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

B. r. I.— 660.

THE RELATION OF CROWN-GALL TO
LEGUME INOCULATION.

INTRODUCTION.

The relative merits of the inoculation of legumes by the pure-
culture method and by the scattering, of soil taken from old well-
inoculated fields have been widely discussed, and both methods have
been recommended by this Bureau. In case old soil is used, the fields
from which it is secured should be free from objectionable weeds and
insect pests and free from plant diseases.

From time to time specimens of supposedly well-inoculated plants
of alfalfa, crimson clover, and alsike clover have been forwarded to
the Laboratory of Soil-Bacteriology Investigations with the explana-
tion that although nodules were produced in abundance the legumi-
nous crop was not satisfactory. In these cases the appearance of
the nodules was abnormal and the bacteria isolated from them, al-
though resembling the nodule-forming organism, did not have the
power of fixing nitrogen in culture solutions, and as a tentative
explanation it was suggested ^ that this was but an extreme case of
pleomorphism of Pseud omonas radlckola, which could be of no sym-
biotic advantage to the leguminous host.

During 1909 the organism occurring in the abnormal nodules of
alfalfa was studied more extensively, and it was decided that this
organism represented a new, although not a destructive, disease of
al&lfa. Through the courtesy of Drs. Smith and Townsend a com-
parative study was made of material furnished by the Laboratory of
Soil-Bacteriology Investigations, which showed that the bacteria
causing the abnormal nodules upon alfalfa were practically identical
with those causing the crown-gall of orchard trees.

In a recent bulletin - Smith, Brown, and Townsend have reported
extensive studies upon the crown-gall of fruit trees, proving con-

1 Moore, George T. Soil Inoculation for Legumes; with Reports upon tho Successful
Use of Artificial Cultures by Practical Farmers. Bulletin 71, Bureau of Plant Industry,
1905.

2 Smith. Erwin F., Brown. Nellie A., and Townsend, C. 0. Crown-Hciil ..f Plat.ts ; Its
Cause and Remedy. Bulletin 213, Bureau of Plant Industry, 1911.

[Cir. 76] _

4 EELATION OF CEOWN-GALL. TO LEGUME INOCULATION.

clusively that this is not only an infectious disease caused by a spe-
cific micro-organism {Bacterium fumefaciens), but that it can infect
many kinds of pLants. For instance, the bacteria isolated from the
crown galls of peach trees will produce excrescences upon the stems
or upon the roots of tomatoes, sugar beets, salsify, rose bushes, apple
trees, certain of the legumes, etc. The same is true of bacteria iso-
lated from these abnormal galls, or tumors, upon sugar beets, and, in
fact, it is probable that the crown-gall bacteria isolated from any one
of the kinds of plants showing the disease will produce similar dis-
eases in any of the other kinds of plants Avhich have been found
infected.

THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN CROWN-GALL TUMORS AND
NITRQGEN-FIXING NODULES.

Fortunately, the difference between nodules produced by the bene-
ficial nodule-forming organism of the legumes and those produced
by the crown-gall organism is sufficiently typical to be easily recog-
nized by an experienced observer. If it is desired to use soil for
inoculating new fields, an examination of the roots of the legume
growing upon the old field would readily show Avhether the soil is
suitable for distribution. The slight external difference between
the crown-gall tumor and the nitrogen-fixing nodule is shown in
Plate I, in which figure 1 shows the nitrogen-fixing nodules of alfalfa ;
figure 2, the crown-gall tumors ; figure 3, the nitrogen-fixing nodules
of crimson clover; figure 4, the crown-gall tumors. Though it may
be possible to confuse these during a hasty examination, it is obvious
upon close inspection that the nitrogen-fixing nodule is an outgrowth
from the plant root, and that it has no more apparent effect upon the
root than has an ordinary branch of the root. The interior of the
nodule contains flesh-colored cells full of bacteria, which may be
easily seen under the microscope. The crown-gall tumor, on the other
hand, causes much distortion of the root, frequently forcing it to
branch into many small roots, which project from the tumor itself.
The interior of the tumor is white and it is difficult, if not impossible,
to see any bacteria in any of the cells, even in the most carefully pre-
pared sections of the tumor tissue.

With the facilities of a bacteriological laboratory it is not especially
difficult to determine whether cultures distributed for inoculating
legumes contain the crown-gall bacteria or the nodule-producing bac-
teria. The three tests most useful for a rapid diagnosis are as
follows: Pour petri-dish plates with special colored agar.^ The
nodule- forming organism does not absorb the color, and grows as

1 Water, 1,000 cubic centimeters; sugar, 10 grams; potassium phosphate (monobasic),
1 gram ; magnesium sulphate, 0.2 gram ; agar, 15 grams ; and congo red, 0.1 gram.
[Cir. 76]

Cir. 76, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

Fig. 1 .—Nitrogen-Fixing Nodules of Alfalfa.

Fig. 2.— CROvyN-GALL Tumors of Alfalfa.

^

Fig. 3. -Nitrogen-Fixing Nodules of Crimson Clover.

^

f

1

Fig. 4.-CROWN-GALL Tumors of Crimson Clover.

NITROGEN-FIXING NODULES AND CROWN-GALL 'L'MORS.

(NiUui-itl size.)

RELATION OF CROWN-GALL TO LEGUME INOCULATION. 5

a whitish, semitranskicent, wet, shining colony. The crown-gall
organism frequently absorbs the stain very freely and produces an
intense red colony; even when not strongly colored the colonies are
usually tinged with red, at least at the center. The clear whitish,
shining colonies should be inoculated into Dunham's solution contain-
ing -2 per cent of nitrate and into a special synthetic broth.^ After
incubation for 10 days at 25° C, or 2 days at 37° C, the crown-gall
organism from alfalfa produces sufficient nitrite to give an intense
nitrite reaction with Griess's solution; the nodule organism produces
no such reaction. In the synthetic broth the nodule organism reduces
the nitrate sufficiently to give an appreciable nitrite reaction, and the
alfalfa crown-gall organism does not.

CROWN-GALL INFECTION THROUGH LEGUMINOUS CROPS.

The fact that must be emphasized especially in connection with
farm practice is that the excrescences, or tumors, formed on certain
legumes by the crown-gall organism have occasionally been confused
with the desirable nitrogen-fixing nodules. It is obvious, therefore,
that in all orchard or sugar-beet regions the possible danger of crown-
gall infection through leguminous crops must be considered. The use
of soil for inoculating alfalfa or clover, if selected at random, may be
a serious menace. In the few years that this matter has been under
observation many records of the shipping of alfalfa soil infected
with crown-gall under the designation of inoculated alfalfa soil have
been obtained.

It is not impossible that cultures prepared by bacteriologists un-
familiar with the slight, though characteristic, physiological differ-
ences between the nodule organism and the crown-gall organism might
serve as a means of infecting a clean field planted with culture-treated
seed. As it is the custom of the bacteriologists of the agricultural
experiment stations, and also of the bacteriologists connected with
commercial firms, to isolate cultures only from well-grown normal
nodules, it is not probable that this second possible source of crown-
gall infection is important.

Whether a leguminous crop infected with crown-gall constitutes
an unusually serious menace to succeeding crops of sugar beets or
to orchards has not yet been determined. The three leguminous
crops, alfalfa, crimson clover, and alsike clover, seem to serve as
very favorable hosts for Bacteiium tumefaciens^ and the organism
isolated from these legimies appears to be at least as viable as when
isolated from its other hosts. It is well known that most leguminous

1 Wator, 1.000 cubic centimotcrs ; sugar, 10 Rrams ; potassium phospliate (monobasic),
1 gram ; maRnesium sulphate, 0.2 gram, and 0.2 per cent of potassium nitrate.
[Cir. 76]

6 RELATION OF CEOWN-GALL TO LEGUME INOCULATION.

crops greatly magnify the severity of nematode infection for suc-
ceeding crops in regions where this pest occurs, and this analogy
emphasizes the necessity, at least until the lack of the necessity for
such caution has been demonstrated, of using the utmost care in
guarding against the dissemination and the favoring of crown-gall
through the agency of these crops.

LOCALITIES WHERE CROWN-GALL HAS BEEN FOUND.

At this time we have records of the occurrence of crown-gall
tumors upon alfalfa in central Kentucky, southwestern Alabama,
northern Virginia, southern Maryland, and northern Pennsylvania.

In greenhouse plants grown at Washington, D. C, in infected soil
received from Kentucky, alsike clover, crimson clover, red clover, and
alfalfa showed extensive infection, and it is probable that these
plants will be found naturally infected in different parts of the

United States.

CONCLUSIONS.

(1) The crown-gall organism has been found in tumors somewhat
resembling the normal nitrogen-fixing nodules upon the roots of
alfalfa, crimson clover, and alsike clover.

(2) Great care should be taken in using soil or cultures for inocu-
lating legumes in regions which may eventually be used for sugar
beets or for orchards.

(3) It is usually possible to distinguish the tumor produced by the
crown-gall bacteria from the nodule formed by the nitrogen-fixing
bacteria by their external appearance.

(4) By the use of special media it is possible to distinguish between
the bacterium which causes crown-gall and the nitrogen-fixing bac-
terium which forms the desired nodules upon the roots of leguminous
plants.

(5) It is not known what other leguminous crops are susceptible
to crown-gall infection. It is believed, however, that there is reason
to suspect all of the clovers.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, March 17, 1911.

[Cii. 76]

O

Issued June 2, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 77.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

A STUDY OF THE IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS
FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION.

LIBRARY

NEW YORK
BOTANJCAL

BY

OARDEIN.

A. D. SHAMEL,
Physiologist, Field Investigations in Pomology.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1911

88655°— Cir. 77—1 1 1

[Cir. 77]

2

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Taylor.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

B. P. I.— 0(4.

A STUDY OF THE IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS
FRUITS THROUGH HUD SELECTION.'

INTRODUCTION.

In April, 1009, under instructions of the Chief of the Bureau of
Plant Industry, the writer visited a large luimber of orange, lemon,
and pomelo groves in southern California, accompanied by Mr.
G. Harold Powell, at that time in charge of fruit transportation and
storage investigations of the Bureau.

In all of the groves it was easily apparent that great differences
existed in the quantity and size of the fruit, in the proportion of
irregular and abnormal fruits, and in the habit of growth and leaf
characters of the trees among neighboring trees of the same variety,
in the same grove, and under uniform conditions.

One of the largest and most successful citrus growers in California,
at Riverside, when questioned as to the cause of these striking difler-
ences, suggested that it might be due to variation in the buds from
which the trees were propagated. He stated further that he believed
that 60 per cent of the trees in his orange groves produced his crops
and that the remaining 4:0 per cent were light producers or barren
and practically worthless.

Little or no selection of buds from select trees has thus far been
practiced in the propagation of citrus trees. In most instances the
propagator secures buds from successful growers of a given variety,
taking the buds without regard to the past or present crops of fruit
borne by individual trees. In some cases the buds for propagation
are cut from nursery stock, where no selection of buds based on crop
performance is possible. "Where selection of buds has been practiced,
almost invariably the propagator has selected the lai-gest and most
vigorous trees without regard to the crop of fruit borne by them.

Owing to the fact that the introduction into California of the com-
mercially successful varieties of citrus fruits is of comparatively

' Thi.s circular has been prepared with a view to supplying information regarding the methods of
work used in investigating the variation in the yield of citrus fruits in California. It is not intended
here to present definite results of this work. Many investigators and fruit growers in different parts
of the United States are interested in this type of investigation, and it is believed that a descrijition
of the Bureau work at this time will aid mjiterially in assisting those who desire to pursue similar
lines. — W.M. A. Tavlor, Acting Chic/ of Bureau.

[Cir. 77] 3

4 IMPEOVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION.

recent date, the demand for trees of these varieties has been greater
than could be supplied, and it has not been practicable to wait until
performance records of individual trees could be secured. It was onl}"
possible to propagate stock true to variety, which under the existing
conditions thus far has been the one consideration of vital importance
to the growers of citrus fruits. In fact, it was usually considered
that an}^ bud from a Washington Navel tree, for example, would pro-
duce a Washington Navel tree like its parent, and the possibilities ot
bud variation were not seriously considered.

The owner of a pomelo grove in San Diego County observed that a
few of the trees purchased a number of years ago, after reaching bear-
ing age, produced large crops of tine seedless fruits, while others near
by were not only light bearers but produced a large proportion of
fruits containing many seeds and of undesirable size and otherwise
unprofitable. In planning for the planting of a new and larger grove
this owner selected the two trees in the original plantation which he
had observed were consistently larger yielders of desirable fruits. He
cut all of the buds for propagating the trees for his new grove from
these two trees. The new grove is now in full bearing and produces
uniformly a large yield of seedless fruits of desirable size and shape.
This grove is a striking example of the benefits to be gained from bud
selection, as shown by comparison with the older groves where bud
selection was not practiced.

These observations were made preliminary to the undertaking of
an investigation by the Bureau of Plant Industrj" of the effect of bud
selection in response to the urgent desire of the citrus growers of Cali-
fornia. After going over the ground and noting many examples of
individual variation it was decided to undertake a systematic study of
the variation of citrus trees in southern California, and the writer
was directed to begin work. Several months were spent in a study
of groves in different sections, so that suitable locations could he
selected where the conditions were such that the data obtained would
be reliable and of permanent value. As a result of the friendly and
generous spirit of cooperation evinced b}^ the growers it was possible,
in every case where it was thought best to undertake this work, to
make satisfactory arrangements to carry on the investigations with-
out expense to the Bureau for as long a period as might prove neces-
sary. Owing to various causes of variation in the yield of trees, such
as seasonal changes, it is planned to continue the study of a given tree
for at least fiv^e years before conclusions are drawn as to its produc-
tive behavior or its relative value as a source of buds for propagation.

The work has been carried through one season, and although the
data obtained are far too meager to be conclu.sive in any way they are
verj^ suggestive as to the practical possibilities and commercial

[Cir. 77]

IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION. 5

importance of this line of work. In response to the general desire of
citrus g-rowers and others for information regarding the object and
plan of the work, this brief prclimiiiarj report is presentc^d. The
data are presented only in an illustrative wa}', so that an intelligent
idea ma_y be gained of the methods used. While these investigations
must, as a matter of necessity, cover a long period of time, it is not
unreasonable to expect that the data obtained from the second and
successive years will 3Meld interesting and valuable results, and reports
giving the data secured and the progress of the work in all its aspects
will be issued.

The writer hopes that this circular will lead more citrus growers to
interest themselves in the investigations to the extent of securing data
on the yield of individual trees in their groves where the conditions
of soil and other factors are uniform and comparative. All the
equipment that is needed is a fairly accurate scale that can be taken
into the orchard and moved readily from tree to tree, a set of rings
corresponding to the sizes of the fruit studied for aid in dividing the
product of each tree into commercial sizes, and a notebook arranged
for keeping the data in a systematic manner. All of the fruit of an
orange tree may be picked at one time, and the sizing, grading, and
note taking should be done, as soon as the fruit is picked, b}' the
grower or some one who can do this woi'k consistently and continu-
ously for a period of several years. The method used by the writer
of securing data of individual trees will be outlined in the following
pages as a suggestion foi- a practicable method of note keeping. If
this method is not suitable for any reason, it can probably be modified
or changed so as to permit of satisfactory practical use by the grower.

OBJECT OF THE INVESTIGATIONS.

The first object of these investigations is to determine definitely
the performance of indi\idual citrus trees of the same variet}', in the
same grove, and under uniform conditions for a period of at least five
years.

If, as the data obtained during the past season show, it is found
that there is consistently a great variation in the quantity, quality,
and value of the fruit borne by different trees of the same variety
under like conditions, it will be determined whether these crop char-
acteristics are ti-ansmissible and whether the progeny of these trees
behave liUe their parents.

If it is found that one tree of a given variety yields consistentl}^
larger crops of more valuable fruit than other trees of the same vari-
ety under comparative conditions and that trees propagated from this
tree inherit this tendency, it follows that the propagation of an im-
proved type of the variety from the desirable tree should be both
possible and practicable.

r»"ir. 77]

b IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION,

The influence of the seedling stock on the development of the buds
from select parent trees will be investigated, and the importance of
the selection of seedlings for budding purposes will be studied. There
is no question as to the fact that citrus seedlings vary greatl}^ in vigor
and habit of growth and in other characteristics, but the effect of
these variations on the development of the scions is a matter as yet
undetermined, although thej'are probably of importance so far as the
development and behavior of the tree is concerned.

At the time of picking careful photographic and other notes are
made of each tree, its fruit, and other characteristics, so that, if results
warrant, score cards and standards of selection may be devised intelli-
gently for the different varieties of citrus fruits to aid in the study
and selection of breeding stock.

The demonstration of methods for the elimination of unproductive
or worthless trees in established citrus groves by rebuddingor replant-
ing and the establishment of reliable sources of uniform stock of citrus
fruits for new plantings are the ultimate aim and object of this work.
The data secured in the course of this work will constitute "pedigree
records,"' based on the performance of the trees studied. The value
of such pedigrees will depend on the conditions under which the data
are obtained and the accuracy and care used in picking, sizing, sort-
ing, and weighing the fruit.

VARIETIES OF CITRUS FRUITS SELECTED FOR PERFORMANCE

RECORDS.

The Washington Navel orange was the variety selected with which
to start the work. The commercial success of this variety' is fully
established in California, Its introduction into southern California is
of comparatively recent date and all of the details relative to its intro-
duction and distribution are fully known. There is probably less
variation in the groves of this variety than in groves of other varieties
now growing in southern California, so that if bud variation is found
to be important in the case of the Washington Navel orange it is
probably of more importance to the other varieties. As the two
parent trees from which all the trees of the Washington Navel orange
in southern California have descended are now growing at Riverside,
Cal., there is an unparalleled oppoi-tunity to studj^ the influences of
change of environment and bud variation, as shown by a comparison
of the parents with their descendants, man v groves of which are grow-
ing under widely differing conditions of soil, altitude, climate, and
culture. The history of practically every Washington Navel tree in
California can easily and definitely be traced to the two original trees,
SO that clear-cut conclusions can be drawn as to the influence of differ-
ent factors on the development of the variety since its introduction.
The fine quality of the Washington Navel orange and its high value

[Cir. 77]

IMPROVEMENT OF CITEUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION, 7

when grown undor favorable conditions were other factors that en-
tered into the decision regarding the selection of this variet}^ for the
work. As the work i)rogresses the trees which consistenth* yield
favorable data should ])eeonie the source of improved stock for plant-
ing, thus greatly enhancing their value for expei'imental demonstra-
tion purposes and making possible the early practical utilization of
the information ol)tained.

In addition to the Washington Navel orange, work with the Marsh
pomelo was begun during the season of 1910. The picking of the
fruit from the selected Washington Navel orange trees began January
1, 1910, and continued initil April 15. The pomelos were picked
from April 15 to fJune 15. The diU'ercnt picking periods of the two
fruits enal)led work upon both to be carried on without interference.
The Marsh pomelo was selected for the reason that it is the most im-
portant commercial variety of pomelo grown in California, on account
of tiie importance and desirability of securing uniform t3^pes of this
fruit similar to the splendid individual trees both as regards quantity
and quality of fruit found in some of the established groves of the
variet}', and because it oti'ered the most promising tield for the pro-
duction of a perfectly seedless and valuable pomelo for southern Cali-
fornia conditions.

The extension of this work to other classes of citrus fruits is highly
desirable. In southern California numerous requests have been made
urging that lemons be included in the work, in order that reliable
select stock may be obtained for extensive new plantings of this fruit.
In some cases prospective lemon planters are carrying on the work
for themselves, with the writer's advice and direction, with every
prospect of success in the securing of reliable data for their own
information and use.

This type of investigation should ultimately be extended to all val-
uable varieties of citrus or other fruits. All varieties do not behave
alike and may differ in their hereditary tendencies, so that in order to
draw conclusions regarding the behavior of any variety it will be
necessary first to demonstrate the facts by actual tests.

LOCATION OF PERFORMANCE-RECORD PLATS.

The Washington Navel orange improvement work is done on the
Eureka and \ ivienda ranches belonging to the National Orange Co.,
near Riverside, Cal. The Marsh pomelo work is conducted on the
Dixon ranch, operated by JMr. L. V. ^^'. Brown, near Riverside, and
on the Mutual ranch of the National Orange Co., near Corona, Cal.

The terra '"pin-formance-record i)lat" is here used to designate the
collection of trees selected for o))taining comparative data as to varia-
tion in the performance of individual trees. The Washington Navel
orange plats will be described in order to illustrate the methods by
which these data are obtained.

[Cir. 77]

8 IMPROVEMENT OF CITEUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION.

The Washington Navel orange performance- record plats are located
on the Eureka ranch of about 175 acres belonging to the National
Oranffe Co. The ranch lies on an elevated mesa surrounded on the
north, east, and south sides by the Box Spring Mountains, and sloping
gently westward to the Santa Ana River, The elevation is such that
cold weather has never injured either the trees or the fruit, and a deep
arroA^o running between the ranch and the mountains and on the west
side perfectly isolates and protects the groves. The ranch itself is
divided liy an arroyo running approximately north and south, so that
it reall}^ consists of east and west sections, or groves, of about the
same area. The two sections are planted to the same stock of Wash-
ington Navel trees, now 12 years old and in perfect health and bearing
condition.

After careful consideration it was decided to locate two performance-
record plats, one in each section, of 50 trees each, in order to secure
duplicate data and more fully check the results of the investigations.
Both plats were chosen to eliminate all possible factors other than
heredity. They are located about in the center of each grove, and
where the conditions of soil, planting, culture, lay of the land, and
health of the trees are as uniform and comparable as it is possible to
find in this region. The land was not cultivated before planting the
grov c and, since planting, all parts of the grove have been treated the
same in ever}' respect. The grove has produced, since coming into
bearing, regular crops of fruit the high qualit}^ of Avhich has made a
national reputation, and not a single diseased or unhealthy tree has
been found in the grove. The trees are free from insect pests and
fungous diseases.

The soil is a granite loam of an unknown depth, tj^pical of the soil
producing the finest navel oranges. In the performance-record plats
the trees are all in a normal, healthy condition and are set at regular
distances, and in no case are there any vacant spaces, roadways,
replants, or other factors to interfere with their similarity. The
record plats are treated exactly like the rest of the grove, the only
difference in any respect being that the fruit is picked under the
immediate supervision of the writer instead of by the regular picking
gang.

The plats consist of five rows of trees side by side 10 trees long,
making a total of 50 trees for each plat. Particular care was taken
to secure in each plat an average lot of trees representing the average
of each grove. No dwarfed or markedly inferior trees or any trees
producing abnormal fruit were included.

SELECTION OF INDIVIDUAL TREES.

In addition to the performance-record plats on the Eureka ranch,
21 individual trees, representing different types of the Washington

[Cir. 77]

IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION. 9

Navel orange so far as could be determined, were selected and picked
in various parts of the groves for illustrative purposes.

On the Vivienda ranch, lying west and below the Eureka ranch, 50
individual trees were selected on the basis of high yield. These 50
trees are all of the type of the Washington Navel orange and are
located under conditions similar to those in the remainder of the grove.
A record of the yield of each size and grade of fruit from both the
Eureka and Vivienda ranches is kept by the National Orange Co., so
that the yield of the select trees can be compared to the average yield
per tree of the groves.

TREE MARKERS AND NUMBERS.

Strips of heavy white cotton cloth about -t feet long and 2 inches
wide were tied in conspicuous places at four regular intervals around
the tree and at a height of 6 or 7 feet above the ground. These
streamers can be plainly seen from an}^ side of the tree and were placed
to prevent the picking of the trees by the regular picking gang.

In the case of the Washington Navel orange every select tree was
given a number, from one consecutively to the total nun^ber of trees
studied. This number was stamped with a metallic die in a strip of
copper 1 hy 4 inches in size, so as to be inefiaceable. A heavy copper
wire 1-J, inches long was soldered to this tag, and the tag correspond-
ing to the number of the tree was attached to the tree by twisting the
wire loosely around one of the main branches near the tree trunk.

In order to assist in finding the tree numljers readily and conveniently,
the number was also painted with Avhite paint on the tree trunk in
large numerals and always on the same side of the tree.

A diagram was made of each grove, showing the location of each
tree marked, in order to assist in finding indi\idual select trees scat-
tered over the groves. It is evident that great care must be exercised
in preserving the tree numbers in order to avoid the loss and confusion
of the data through a period of years.

PERFORMANCE RECORDS.

By ••performance records" is meant the data obtained from the
individual trees as to the yield and quality of fruit each year. A con-
secutive series of these records constitutes a performance record of
the trees from which the data are obtained. '•Quality" in this w^ork
means the proportion of the ditierent sizes and grades of fruit, thus
determining the commercial value of the fruit from each tree. No
definite means of recording the fia\or, sweetness, acidity, quantity of
juice, rind, etc., has been evolved as yet, although a serious attempt
is being made to secure these additional data for future records.
These performance-i-ecord data are obtained in the grove and one ti-ee
is finished before any other is picked. The fruit from each is picked,
88655°— Cir. 77—11 2

10 IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUTTS THROUGH BUD SELECTION.

graded, sized, weighed, and counted, and the notes are takt'n in order
to avoid any possible confusion, mistake, or loss of fruit. The fruit
is then taken to the packing house and packed with the other fruit
from the grove. To anyone familiar with the difficulty in securing

Fi(i. 1.— Ideal type of tree of tlie Wiishiiigton Navel orange, the most productive tree in 1910. The
crop is practically all borne on inside branches.

reliable data in corn, tobacco, or other })reeding work it is apparent
that this work is simply done and is more valuable as a basis for selec-
tion than in the case of data secured from cross-fertilized plants or
annual crops of any kind.

PHOTOGRAPHS.

Two photograi)hs are taken of each tree— one before and one
after picking The photograph before picking gives an idea of the

[Cir. 77]

IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SET^ECTTON. 11

distribution of tho fruit on the tree. After picking-, the boxes of fruit
are assembled side b}' side at the foot of the tree in one contiruious row,
slightly inclined to show the fruit in the boxes, so that the photograph
gives a complete illustration of the total quantity of fruit from each tree.
These photographs preserve better than language can express the habits
of growth and other characteristics of the individual ti'ees. Figures 1
to igive an idea of some of the striking dilierences in the character and

iMu. -2.— Typical lieavy-i<ro(luiing Wasliiim'tdU Navfl oraiiRe tree, showing a large proportion of

llllt^id(■ fruit.

habits of growth of the dilTerent trees, as shown by the photographic
records. No notes or descriptions would serve so adequately' to pre-
serve these data or to present them in such comparable form.

The photographs are attached to the sheet bearing the data secured
from the stud3' of the fruit and are invaluable aids in interpreting the
results.

[Cir. 77]

12 IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION.

PICKING.

The picking of each tree is done by an expert reg-ular picker I'ur-
nished l)v the grower, under the immediate supervision of the Avriter.
Ever\^ possible care is used to prevent injury to the fruits, both in
picking- and in all other operations. The fruit is picked in the usual
manner and placed ill picking boxes. All of the fruit is picked, the
boxes are assembled, and the photograph of each tree is made before

fc

^ ^^W^9E9BBBBln^M

v^u^^^^sSi »^H^|Q^hB^3^9j^^^^^^\ JE^mVmB

^^^^^^^^^m

'^^^^^s^5^!3/9^^^^wBSS^^iSSSS^^^^SSU^E^J^SsjffSSBtSSBBsu

^^^^^^^^

i^^^^^^

^w

Fi'i. 3. — Typical " barren" type of VVashiiiKton Navel orange tree.

the sorting or any other operation is begun. No fruit is picked and
allowed to stand overnight before the several operations are com-
pleted.

GRADING AND SIZING.

The fruit of each Washington Navel tree is sorted into three grades
by the writer: (1) Orchard grade, representing all of the perfect fruit,
without injury or blemish; (2) standard grade, or f ruifs of irregular
shape, blemish, or discoloration, l)iit still suitable for shipment as an
inferior grade; and (8) culls, or fruits so badly malformed or Avitli
such marked blemishes as to render them unfit for shipment or sale.

[Cir. 77]

IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION. 13

The orchard and stanchird grades are sized with a siiiall automatic
sizer into 11 different (-oniniercial sizes, viz., 80, *J6, 112, 126, 150,
176, 200,'.216,-^S0,'288, and 300 to a box.

In the beginnint,' of the Washington Navel orange work, rings of
the corresponding sizes were used and the sizing was done by hand.

Fig, 4. — "AUbtralittii " type, a barren and \vorthle.ss type of the Washington Xavel orange.

This is a perfectly satisfactory method, but w^th the large number of
trees studied the automatic grader is more efficient. In the case of
pomelos or lemons the sizijig nnist of necessitv be done with rings, as
there is at present no satisfactory automatic sizer available. The
orange sizer is small and compact and easily moved about the grove

[I'ir. TT]

14 IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION.

by two men. Figure 5 shows the mechanical sizer at work and illus-
trates the method used in grading the fruit from the select trees.
The small platform scale for weighing the fruit, mounted on a truclc,
is also shown.

The fruits of each size of each grade are counted and weighed
separately and the results noted in the regular blank form, except in
the case of culls, where no sizes are made and the weight is taken as
a whole. By adding tlie totals of the three grades the total product
of the tree is obtained. These data, including the number and weight
of fruits of each grade and size from each tree, form a detinite basis
for scoring a tree as to its performance and make possible an accurate

Fig. 5.— Portable mechanical orange sizer aud scales for weighing the different lots of grades and

sizes of fruit from individual trees.

and comprehensive comparison of the value of individual trees under
the same conditions. When, as is usually the case, the growers keep
a record of the product of each size and grade from the grove as a
whole, these data are of further comparative value. While oranges
are frequently divided into additional grades commercially, for bud-
selection purposes the three grades mentioned above are sufficient to
give reliable data as to the quality of the fruit, and the personal
equation in sorting into extra fancy and other grades of tine-drawn
distinction is thus eliminated. Moreover, the quantity of sound, f ree-
f rom-blemish, marketable fruit of good quality that the tree produces
is the most important factor to be considered in this work. This

rCir. 771

IMPROVEMENT OF CITEUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION.

15

matter, however, intiy vary under ditfereiit conditions and can be
adjusted to meet the prevailing methods of grading and sizing prac-
ticed in the locality where performance records are to be made.

COUNTING AND WEIGHING.

It was found most convenient systematically to pick up five oranges
at one time in the case of the smaller sizes, three in the right hand
and two in the left, in order to make an accurate count. In the case
of the large sizes a detinite number is taken up, the same each time,
in order to avoid mistakes in the count. This may seem to be a very
simple matter, but errors are very easil}'' made, especially after long-
continued work, and it is probal^lc that most workers along this line
should practice checking up results in order to become absolutely
accurate before attempting to count the fruit from select trees.

A small platform balance scale weighing from 1 ounce to 250 pounds
is used to obtain the weights of fruits. The weigher is frequently
balanced to avoid mistakes in weighing, and great care is taken to
secure exact weights of each lot of fruit. The balance is mounted on
a small hand truck for convenience in moving about the grove.
(See tig. 5.)

RECORD BLANKS.

The followinof outline illustrates the method used in this work of
recording data on the performance records nf individual trees. A
separate sheet is necessary for each tree.

Date

Location.
Variety . .

Oraii(je performance record.

Grower.
Picker..

Series

Grove

No. oi tree.

Designation

Number of fruits.

Weight of fruit.

of sizes.

Orchard.

Standard.

Culls.

Total.

Orchard.

Standard.

Culls.

Total.

300

288

•i.'X)

216

200

176

150

126

112

96

80

Total . .

i

1 1

',

Description of tree.

Remarks

[C\r. 77]

16 IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION.

In order to bring these data together so that the records of different
years may be easily compared, the following form for showing the
total data from each tree for a period of five years is suggested:

Dates

Location .
Variety . ,

Orange pedigree record.

Grower.
Picker .

Series

Grove

No. of tree.

Number.

Weight.

Grades and sizes.

Date.

Date.

Date.

Date.

Date.

Date.

Date.

Date.

Date.

Date.

Grades:

Culls

Total

Sizes:
300

988

i

9f^n

216

176

1

Tin

19fi

119

1

Qf;

1

'

80

1

Description of

■t;fp^ . ....... ,.......,.._.-......--

The arrangement of the record blanks used for pomelo and lemon
data is based on the same principle as the orange record blanks and
depends on the prevailing commercial practice of grading and sizing
these fruits. These data are obtained in the grove, but where the
fruit is held for curing or other purposes additional notes on the con-
dition of the stored fruit can be taken when desired.

ARRANGEMENT OF DATA AND PHOTOGRAPHS.

The arrangement of data sheets and photographs can be made of
great assistance in interpreting the results. The writer uses sheets of
paper for the data and photographic prints of convenient size and
arranged to fit loose-leaf ledger covers. In this way the sheets may
be moved and grouped into any classification desired. It is desirable
in the case of the pedigree records to arrange the leaves so that when
the book is opened the photographs on one page face the data on the
other page. Convenient arrangements will suggest themselves to
those interested in studying the question of filing these records.

.[Cir. 77]

IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION. 17

NOTE TAKING.

Detailed descriptions or notes of trees or fruits have not been ex-
tensively made. Such general notes are usually somewhat vague and
unsatisfactory as a means of preserving definite ideas of the objects
described. There are, however, certain notes that are very valuable,
for example, the history of the trees; a description of the past and
present methods of orchard management, particularl}" methods of «oil
treatment; the histor}' of the cultivation of the grove; the kinds and
quantities of fertilizers used or other sources of soil improvement;
the methods and system of irrigation; the methods of pruning, if any;
and any other facts bearing on the maintenance of the grove. One
objection to the taking of extensive notes in this t3"pe of work is that
the time and energy devoted to this phase are likely to defeat the
principal object of the work. The most eminent!}^ successful plant
breeders with whom the writer has been acquainted have used but few
notes, preferring to have the plants themselves as notes and to devote
their attention to a lirst-hand study of the plants. There is, perhaps,
a happy medium, which must be discovered b}" each worker for him-
self, which will permit of the stud}- of a sufficiently large number of
plants and the pi-eservation of all necessary' data.

CITRUS-IMPROVEMENT CLUBS.

The writer suggests the organization of citrus-improvement clubs
in the various citrus-growing localities for mutual assistance in the
study of this subject. Such clubs, with a membership consisting of
interested citrus growers, could hold regular meetings for the purpose
of discussing individual results and the criticism of methods of work.
It would be possible for such clubs to maintain a set of record books
in which a cop}' of each members data could be kept, similar to the
plan of certain live-stock breeders' associations. The membership in
such organizations should ])e undertaken only by growers who are
willing to devote the necessarj^ time, care, and thought to their work,
so that the results will be reliable and of permanent value. It would
be possible for the local clubs to have a central organization through
which atinual or other meetings might be held for the purpose of
bringing together interesting information from the different clubs.
Some such active cooperation would be of great value in promoting a
widespread and general interest in this work.

IMPORTANCE OF UNIFORMLY PRODUCTIVE TREES.

The great dili'erence between the yield of the best trees in a grove
and the average yield per tree of that grove, found so far in every
grove of Washington Navel oranges and Marsh pomelos, indicates that

[Cir. 77.]

18 IMPROVEMENT OF CITEUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION.

in the established groves there is a great lack of uniformity in fruit
production. For instance, in the case of one orange grove the best
tree produced 432 pounds of fruit, while the average of the grove was
about 175 pounds. Similar proportions were observed in all other
groves studied. The differences in the } ield of the best and avei-age
pomelo trees were even greater than in the case of the orange trees.
Conservative growers have frequently estimated that uniform trees
like the best ones in their groves would more than double their crops.
The yield test for individual trees, like the Babcock test for dairy cat-
tle, should discover the " boarders," or worthless trees, that cost just as
much to maintain as the productive, profitable ones. There is a cer-
tain delinite investment in every tree in the grove which can easily be
figured out by the grower, and the loss or profit of the trees can be
determined by means of the yield test and the selling price of the
fruit. Such information must be of intense interest to every fruit
grower and can be secured at little expense of time or money.

THE VALUE OF RELIABLE SELECT TREES.

To every prospective planter of citrus trees the reliability and char-
acter of trees planted are of paramount importance. The expense for
buds is a comparatively small item in the planting of a grove, not in
any sense commensurate with their im^wrtance to the planter. It is
probable that the additional expense necessary for the production
of selected stock will be gladly borne by the planter provided he is
assured of its improved value. Performance records from trees
which are extra heavily fertilized or favored in any way might prove
misleading. Therefore it will be necessary to avoid the error of
depending on records that have been secured under unfair conditions.
Too much emphasis can not be laid on this point, as dishonest and
unscrupulous nurserymen might mislead purchasers of their stock in
order to reap a temporary, dishonest reward. The reputation of tlie
grower of select buds of trees must be taken into account as well as
the performance records of his breeding stock.

SUMMARY.

The object of these investigations is the demonstration of methods
for the elimination of unprotitable trees in citrus grOves and the pro-
duction of reliable select citrus trees for new plantings.

These investigations, begun in April, 1909, are being carried on with
Washington Navel oranges and Marsh pomelos near Kiverside, Cal.
If desirable, this work will be extended to other sections of the citrus
belt and to deciduous and other fruits as soon as men are provided to
conduct the work.

[Cir. 77.]

IMPROVEMENT OF CITRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION. 19

A series of consecutive performance records is necessary to secure
reliable select stock, and methods of securing these data and tabulating
them for intelligent interpretation are described in the foregoing
pages.

The yield of established orange and pomelo trees of the same
variety varied greatly iji the same gi-ove and under similar conditions
during the past season. Further data are necessary in order to know
whether tiie high and low yielders of the past season are consistent in
their behavioi'.

The importance of uniformly high-yielding trees bearing a large
proportion of valuable fruit is apparent by conjparing the 3'ield of the
best with that of the poorest trees in any grove. It is probable that
the yield can be greatl}' increased and improved l)y securing trees of
uniforndv good performance.

The development of reliable select stock is of the greatest possible
importance to the prospective planter.

Approved:

f I AMES Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, March '21, 1911.

[(-ir. 77.]

o

Issued June 1, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUKEAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Cirrular No. 78.
B. T. GALLOWAY, CbicL' ol" Bureau.

AGRICDLTDRAL OBSERVATIONS
ON THE TRDCKEE-CARSON IRRIGATION PROJECT.

BY

F. V>. JIEAm.Y.Y, As.<!).'ifant Agriculturist,

AND

VINCENT FULKERSON, Agent.

WASMINCiTON ; GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1911

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Bevekly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Taylor.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jo.xes.

[Cir. 78]

2

B. P. I.— C66.

AGRICULTURAL OBSERVATIONS ON THETRUCKEE-
CARSOX IRRIGATION PROIECT.

INTRODUCTION".

Tlie Tnickee-Cai-son Irrigation Project in western Nevada was
one of the first of the new regions to be opened for settlement under
the reohmiation act of 1902. Practically all of the public land for
which irrigation water is available has now been taken up by set-
tlers. Hie Bureau of I^hint Industry of the United States Depart-
nienl of Agriculture, in cooperation with the Nevada Agricultural
Experiment Station, has oj)erated an experiment farai on this project
since 1906.^

There appears to be considerable popular interest in the agri-
cultural conditions and possibilities of this project, and many letters
asking for information concerning the region are received at the
experiment farm. This circular has been prepared with a view to
answering these inquiries and also to give to the settlers already on
the project the results of the experiments and observations made
during the past two seasons. It will be noticed that much of the
material presented is fragmentary and incomplete. This is due to
the fact tluit the agriculture of the region is still new and that com-
paratively little definite knowledge as to the agricultural possibili-
ties and the best farming methods has as yet been accumulated.

The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm is situated 1 mile south of
Fallon, Nev. On this farm tests are being made of the adaptability
of various field, fruit, and garden crops, including some varieties
newly imported from foreign countries. Methods of reducing the
salt content of the alkali soil on portions of the experiment farm, so
as to malcc it more suitable for crop growth, are being worked out.
The agricultural problems of the project as a wdiole are being studied
In a limited way and cooperative work' is being conducted in two of
the older orchards in the pioject.

A small library has been provided at the experiment farm, consist-
ing of a number of agricultural books and periodicals and some of
the bulletins from the United States Department of Agriculture
and from the State agricultural experiment stations. The farmers
on the project are invited to make use of these publications in ob-
taining infoi-mation on subjects in which they may be interested.

1 For additional information on this subject, see Bulletin 157. Bureau of Plant In-
dustry, U. S. Dopt. of AKriculturp, entitled " The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm,"
Issued Aupust 11, 1909.

[Cir. 78] o

4 AGEICULTUEAL, OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CAESON PROJECT.

They are also invited to notify the superintendent or to brino- speci-
mens to him of diseases or insect pests and to report other difliculties
they may be having in connection with growing their crops, so that
helj) ma}^ be given if possible.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE PROJECT.

About 35,000 or 40,000 acres of land are now under cultivation
on the Truckee-Carson project, most of it lying near the town of
Fallon, Xev., which has a population of about 1,000.

Most of the soil is a light sandy loam, but there are also large
areas of fertile black soil on the east and south sides of the project.
Both the sandy and black soils are good and produce abundant
crops, but there are also to be found in most parts of the j^roject
small, ii regular areas of hard, impervious soil, which are difficult
to work and do not usually produce satisfactory crops.

UNDERGROUND AVATER.

Portions of some of the farms and also a few larger areas in the
project have at present a soil too salty to grow crops. Salt has
accumulated mostly in those soils where the ground-water table
rises to within a short distance of the surface, establishing a capil-
lary connection and l)v evaporation leaving deposits of salt on the
surface. In those cases where the water table is xerj close to the
surface little or no advantage results from an attempt to wash out
the accumulated salt by flooding, the result being, instead, a still
higher rise of the ground water, which tends to increase the dif-
ficulty. To remedy these conditions deep ditches should be put
through, so as permanently to lower the water table. After this is
done heavy applications of water to the surface may percolate
throuffh the soil and carrv with it the excess of the soluble salts.
A comprehensive drainage system has been planned for the lower
lands of the project, and it only remains for this system to be com-
pleted and for farm drains to be constructed; it should then be
possible to keep the ground water below the limit of serious harm.

WINDS.

The wind is an important factor on a large part of the Truckee-
Carson project, where the soil is sandy and can be easily blown.
"Windstorms occur occasionally in the spring and are sometimes
severe enough to kijl new seedings of alfalfa. They are also in-
jurious to small garden staff that is just appearing above the ground.
The winds usually come from the west and, since the damage is due
chiefly to the blowing of the sand, young crops may be planted
quite safely on the east side of a field on which grain or alfalfa is
growing, or sandy fields may be protected by brush fences or hedges.

[Cir. 78]

AGRICULTURAL OnSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CAESOX PROJECT. 5

TEMPERATURES.

Table I, compiled from the records of the United States Weather
Bureau, shows approximated the temperature conditions that exist
in the region under discussion. It will be noted that the maximum
temperature recorded is 103° F. and the minimum —15° F. As a
general rule, plowing and leveling land and digging ditches are
carried on throughout the winter months; but the winter of 1900-10
was an exception to the ride, the ground remaining frozen for about
two months.

Table I. — Maximum. ))>Uiimum, and mean tem-peratures, hy months, at Fallon,

Nev., for ,si.r years, W0J,-1910.

1904

1906

1907.

1908.

1909

1910

Mean
of the
means.

Month.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Mln.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

January

56
65
69
83
85
93
98

°F.

9

15
20
28
39

48

°F.
60
69

op

6

11

op

64
72
70
81
88
93
99
99
95

°F.

-2
22
12
29
29
33
44
40
29

"F.
56
71
78
89
80
93
101
103
94
82
68
56

op

12
16
15
18
25
35
51
36
20
15
6
-2

51
62
68
77
88
97
98
98
90
80
70
55

"F.
29
13
15
21
26
43
39
43
31
24
12
8

°F.

42

64

73

89

102

101

103

98

90

88

75

60

'F.
-15
-12
24
22
30
40
38
39
32
23
13
12

"F.
30.2

Fcl)ruary

38.2

Mart'li

43.7

April

84
84
90
101
98
90
88
81
59

18
31
38
53
42
34
22
-1
-2

52.1

May

June ^..

July

50.6
64.9
74.3

Vugust

71.8

Sent ember

61.4

Ootoljor

76

30

51.2

76
72

18
15

40.8

December

32.8

1 The records for 1905 are not obtainable.
FROSTS.

The length of the summer period between frosts is shown in
Table II. This table is only approximately correct, for the reason
that the dates of the killing frosts are reported from the different
parts of the project by various individuals, who may have a di-
ver.sity of opinion as to what constitutes a "killing'' frost. The
table will, however, be helpful in indicating approximately the
length of the growing season.

Tabi.k II. — Dales of the last killing frost in spring and the first killing frost in
autumn at various points on tlic Truekrc-i 'arson project, 1905-11)10. in-
chisivc.^

Locality. j Time of year.

Cirson Dam 7'^^''* '° spring. . .

Carson mm \First in autumn.

Lcetville ^ I Last in spring. . .

^^^^ '"® \First in autumn.

c„,i„ T „i,„ (La.st in spring. . .

S°''^Lake tFirst in autimin.

Fallon (Last in spring...

■^ ^"°° \ First in autumn

Hazen i^'^^ ''^ spring. . .

^^^^^ \First in aut uiim.

Fernlcv i^^^ ™ spring. . .

'^'^'^""^^ \First in autumn.

Dates of killing frosts.

1905.

1906.

1907.

Sept. 4

Oct. 8

I

Oct. 4

Apr.
Oct.
May
Sep"t.

1908.

Oct.
May
Oct.
May
Oct.

Sept.
May
Sept.
June

June
Oct.

May 15
Sept. 26
May 9
Sept. 26
May 16
Sep"t. 25
May 30
Sept. 25

May
Sept.

1909.

May 11
Oct. 30
Mav 13
Sept. 22
May 14
Oct. 22
May 24
Sept. 22

May 28
Oct. 8

1910.

Apr.
Oct.
Apr.

22
13
12

Oct. 13

Apr. 15

Oct. 13

Mav 16

Sept. 13

Apr. 21
Oct. 13

1 Compiled from the oDicial reports of the United States Weather Bureau.
[Cir. -S]

6

AGEICULTUEAL OBSEEVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CAESON PEOJECT.

The occurrence of frosts is markedlj' influenced by the local topog-
raphy of the land, as the cold air settles into the low places when the
air is calm. Some observations made at the experiment farm in the
spring of 1910 show the extent of this influence in a typical location.
Two registering minimum thermometers were placed 190 feet apart,
one of them in a hollow betAveen two long, low hills, and the other
on the highest point on one of the hills at an elevation of 13| feet
above the level of the one in the hollow. During April, 1910, the
average minimum temperature on the hill was 4.2 degrees warmer
than in the hollow, Tlie record Avas kept IT days in ISIay, during
which time the average minimum hill temperature was 3.2 degrees
warmer tlian in the hollow. The greatest differences occurred on
those nights when there was little or no wind. A maximum differ-
ence of 10 degrees occurred on the night of April 2."). Xo instance is
recorded when the minimum temperature was higher in the hollow
than on the hill. These results, given in detail in Table III, indicate
that tender fruits and vegetables will be in less danger of being-
injured b}^ late spring frosts when planted on the higher lands.

Table III. — DaUu hiiiihiiiuii tiiitixraiiircs recorded hij tico 1h< nnoinctcrs, one
on a hill and the other in a low place, on the Truckce-Cdrson Experiment
Farm, Fallon, iS'ci-., during the months of April and May, 1910}

Apr. 1.

s!

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

Date.

1910.

Temperature.

Difler-

On

In

eiice.

hill.

draw.

" F.

° F.

" F.

30

32

4

39

37

2

38

36

2

23

19

4

29

22

7

46

44

2

34

31

3

38

34

4

40

35

5

40

37

3

41

40

1

30

28

2

39

35

4

38

30

2

28

23

5

32

24

8

36

29

7

'39

31

8

50

44

6

43

42

1

34

31

3

37

30

7

40

32

8

4.5

37

8

45

35

10

50

48

2

53

51

2

Date.

Apr. 28.
29.
30.

1910.

Average for mouth.
Mav 1

9

10

11

12

13

14

15 to 27.

28

29

30

31

Temperature.

On
hill.

' F.

44
36
47

39.0

Average for month . .

35
38
43
38
26
34
42
45

(2)
42
39
40
48
49
(2)
44
54
54
56

42.7

In
draw.

•P.
41
33
46

34.8

34
36
42
38
24
28
38
37
50
41
38
35
45
46
(2)
40
51
47
52

Differ-
ence.

39.5

1 Distanco apart of nicrninnietcrs, 190 feet; dilTcnMico in elevation, V.''l feet.
- Itccords not obtained.

[Cir. 7S]

' F.
3
3
1

4.2

3.2

AGRICULTURAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT. 7

RAINFALL.

The rainfall in the region of the Truekee-Carson project is so light
as to be of little benefit to growing crops. Table IV gives the
monthly precipitation for the five years fOOC) to 11)10, inclusive.

Table IW—Anniitil rainfall at Fallon, Nev., 1906-JDlO.'

Month.

January

February..

March

April

May

June

July

August

September.

October

November.
December. .

190C.

0.76

72

.57

.01

Trace.

.29

Trace.

.44

1.56

1907.

0.39

.30

1.40

1.06

.39

.66

Trace.

.38

.12

.41

.21

.48

Total annual .

5.80

1908.

I

1909.

0.49
.48
.02
.28
.92
.05
.15
.02
.62
.17
Trace.
.07

3.27

0.60
.25
.74
.19

. .02
.27
Trace.
.06
.41
.70
.71

1.30

5.25

1910.

1.98
.04
.10
.28
.0
.10
.05
.0
.45
.46
.02
.66

4.14

Average.

0.86
.29
.56
.51
.41
.33
.04
.09
..■J8
.35
.28
.81

4.91

1 Compiled from ofTicial reports of the United States Weather Bureau.

TREE PLANTING ON THE PROJECT.

Tree planting should be one of the first things undertaken by each
farmer, so that windbreaks may be established as soon as possible.
The}^ should be arranged so as to protect the gardens, farm build-
ings, and orchards from the south and west winds. The larger fields
may also be protected by planting rows of trees along the west sides.
The best trees to use for the purpose are the Carolina poplar, balm
of Gilead, black locust, Russian oleaster, and tamarisk.

CAROLINA POPLAR.

The Carolina poplar {Popuhis deltoides carolinensis) is a rapid-
growing tree that can be propagated easily from cuttings. It is
closely related to the common cottonwood, but is more symmetrical
in shape and seems to make more rapid growth. Ten-inch cuttings
set out in April. 1910, at the experiment farm made a growth of 4
to 8 feet during that season. Nurserymen have propagated it by
means of cuttings from staminate or male trees onh'^ ; therefore, it
does not have the disagreeable habit of shedding " cotton " each
spring. The chief value of the Carolina poplar is for fuel, windbreak,
and ornamental purposes. The wood is too soft to be of much value
for timber or for fence posts unless a i^reservative is used. Cuttings
may be obtained by local farmers from the Truckee-Carson Experi-
ment Farm.

[Cir. 78]

8 AGEICULTUEAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CAESON PROJECT.

NORWAY POPLAR.

The Norway- poplar is very similar to the Carolina poplar in ap-
pearance. Some nurserymen claim that it makes a more rapid
growth, but we have been unable to observe any difference between
the, two varieties on the Truckee-Carson project.

COTTONWOOD AND BALM OF GILEAD.

The Cottonwood {Populiis deltoides) and balm of Gilead {Populus
'bahmnifera) are desirable species of the poplar family. Both species
have a more spreading habit than the Carolina poplar and probably
do not make such rapid growth. The j)istillate or female cotton-
woods are not so desirable, on account of their habit of shedding
" cotton." Cuttings from staminate or male stocks produce trees
that do not have this defect. Either species is easily propagated from
cuttings, or seedlings of the cottonwood may be obtained along the
watercourses, where they grow abundantly.

BLACK LOCUST.

The black locust {Rohinia jysendacacia) makes a rapid growth and
produces an excellent timber for farm purposes. The wood is hard
and tough, making it valuable for fuel, whiffletrees, crossbars, ax
handles, and general repair work. It is slow to decay when in con-
tact with the soil, so that it is one of the best materials to use for
fence posts. "V^^ien the black locust is cut down new shoots put out
from the stump and grow straighter and with greater rapidity than
the original tree. It has the bad habit of suckering, so that the locust
plantation is liable to grow up into an impenetrable thicket unless
it is well cared for. The tree is easilv grown from seed, or it mav be
propagated from root cutiings. Seed can be obtained from nurseries
in the Central States at about TO cents a pound, or 1-year-old seedling
trees can be purchased for about $3 a thousand.

TAMARISK.

The tamarisk {Tamarix sp.) is a quick-growing tree or shrub,
useful for windbreaks and hedges. The foliage is light and feathery
and decidedl}^ ornamental. It is easily grown from cuttings, which
will be supplied by the experiment station during the early spring
months. These cuttings are from 8 to 10 inches in length, and for
windbreaks or hedges shouxd be set in the ground 2 feet apart in
the roAY. This will make a beautiful, dense hedge within two years.
Cutting back the ends of the branches each winter will cause it to
branch more and result in a thicker hedge.

[Cir. 78]

AGRICULTURAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT.

9

RUSSIAN OLEASTER.

The Russian oleaster {Elaeagnus angustifolia), a close relative of
the native bufl'alo berry, is a very desirable tree to nse for hedges and
windbreaks. T( should find a place about every farm home on the
Truc'kee-Carson project to protect the house, garden, and orchard
from the winds, to outline driveways, or to hide unsightly buildings.
AMien the seedlings are planted 3 or 4 feet apart it makes a dense
hedge in two or three years that will turn-live stock. Cutting back
a little each year causes the hedge to thicken. When grown isolated,
it makes a sj'unnetrical tree with a round top.

It is sometimes referred to as the Russian wild olive, but since it
does not belong to the olive i'amih'. but to the oleaster familv. the

Fig. 1. — Hedge of Russian oleaster {Elacuf/iuis uiifjuniifolia) on the Truckee-t'arson Experi-
ment Farm. Tliis hedfe'e was set out in the spring of 1908, 1-year-old seedlings being
used. ( riiotograplied in August, IDIO. i

name Russian oleaster is more accurate and should be used. This
species is native to northern Persia, southern Siberia, and northern
China. Seed can be obtain.ed in small quantities from the experi-
ment farm each year, or the seedlings may be obtained from some
nurserymen in the western part of the Mississippi Valley.

A row of several hundred l-_year seedlings was set out at the ex-
periment farm in April, 1908. In the fall of 1009 the hedge was
7 feet high and so dense as to be impenetrable. During 1910 this
hedge was kept pruned back to a height of T feet, and the rt'^ult was
a beautiful, symmetrical hedge, as shown in the accoinpan3'ing ligure
(fig. 1). Some trees that were not pruned are now from 10 to 15
feet in height, the result of three years' growth from the 1-year seed-
lings. An abundant crop of seed was produced the third year after
nO.''.ll°— Cir. TS— 11 2

10 AGRICULTUEAL OBSERVATIONS ON TEUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT.

planting. In Dakota the tree is said to reach a height of 25 to 35
feet in 10 years.

CLEARING AND LEVELING THE LAND.

To prepare the desert soil for irrigation it is fi-rst necessary to
clear the land of the brush that grows on practically all the soil suit-
able for crop production. The vegetation which has to be cleared
away in the preparation of the land is chiefly greaseAvood (Sarcoba-
tus), rabbit brush (Chrysomanthus). and sagebrush (Artemesia).
This brush may be removed by grubbing, dragging a railroad iron
over it, or, where it is not too large, by the use of the common disk
harrow. The brush can often be used for fuel or for the building of
windbreaks or corrals. It is important not to clear the brush off
more land than can be irrigated and put into crop at once, as clear-
ing it exposes the soil to the action of the wand, which often causes
serious damage to crops lying to leeward.

Some of the land on the project is naturally almost level, and the
cost of getting it ready for crops is very low. Other areas are cov-
ered with small sand hills, and the cost of leveling these is consid-
erable. The cost of clearing and leveling the land varies from $8
to $100 per acre. jNIost of it can be cleared and leveled at a cost of
$15 to $35 per acre.

AGRICULTURE OF THE PROJECT.

Alfalfa has been in the past the j^rincipal source of income to the
farmers on the project, and this will probably continue to be true for
some years. Barley and other grains have been grown to some extent
on portions of the project, but under most conditions grain has not
been as profitable as alfalfa.

On account of the distance to large markets, an overproduction of
alfalfa or any bulky crop results in a low price for that product ;
hence, it is well to avoid as far as possible any local overproduction of
bulky products. If the crop production of the project were to be
limited to alfalfa, without at the same time providing live stock for
its consumption, the result would be unprofitable market conditions.
These conditions were approached at Fallon in the fall of 1010, when
the price of alfalfa dropped to $G.50 a ton in the stack.

No commercial orchards have been planted, but there are sections
of the project on the higher lands having good drainage where fruit
growing might become commercially profitable. If such plantings
are made, care should be taken to put them only on land which is not
subject to a high water table and where the air drainage is good, for
under other conditions the trees are almost sure to be short lived and
to suffer from spring frosts. There are numerous small orchards on
the project and in some of them the trees are doing well.

[Cir. 78]

AGKICULTURAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT. 11

FORAGE CROPS.
ALFALFA.

Alfalfa is the great money crop of this region. It is seeded any
time after ^Nlarch 1 until tlu' end of August, although April, May,
iind August are probably the best months in wliich to seed. June
and July are so hot that there is a tendency for the soil to dry out
rapidly and check the growth of the tender seedlings.

The rate of seeding is from 12 to 20 pounds per acre. T^Yelve
pounds per acre is sufficient seed for a good stand in the lighter soils,
where there is little trouble in getting the seed to germinate. In the
heavier soils, or in land that crusts badly, it is often advisable to sow
more than 15 pounds per acre. It is generally broadcasted and har-
rowed in. but it is preferable to put it in Avith the grain drill. In the
light sandy soils the alfalfa may be safely sown H inches deep, but
this is too deep for the heavier soils. The seed should be sowni as
deep as is consistent with the character of the soil, as the deep-sown
seed is less liable to dry out after germinating.

Fields should be irrigated and well prepared immediately before
seeding. The seed is then sown in the moist soil and should germi-
nate at once. If the character of the soil will permit it is best to let
the seed come up before again irrigating, as the water always packs
and cools the soil and sometimes causes a crust to form, through
which the alfalfa does not readily penetrate.

The usual method of irrigating alfalfa about Fallon is by flood-
ing in checks. Xear Fernley the practice is to irrigate by the furrow
or corrugation system.

While the alfalfa is 3'oung rather frequent irrigations are needed,
but as the alfalfa grows older and the roots penetrate deeper, fewer
irrigations should be given. AVhere there is poor drainage and danger
from a high water table special care should be taken not to over-
irrigate, and water should be applied only when the alfalfa shows
signs of actually needing it. "\Miere there is good drainage more
fre<^|uent applications of water are not so liable to ])roduce bad
results.

It is often difficult to get a satisfactory stand of alfalfa, either
from the crusting of the soil, so that the alfalfa seedlings can not
break through, or from the blowing of sand, which sometimes cuts
off the young plants at the surface of the ground.

These difficulties may be partly overcome by first seeding grain on
the land in the spring and when the grain is a few inches high seed-
ing in the alfalfa with a grain drill. The stand' of grain partially
shades the ground, thus somewhat preventing the crusting of the
soil, and it effectually protects the alfalfa seedlings from the diift-
ing of the sands. The grain should be cut for hay before it is mature,

FCir. 78]

12 AGRICULTURAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT,

in order to give the alfalfa a chance to make a good growth before
cold weather sets in.

Onh' the purest alfalfa seed should be sown. Much alfalfa seed
has been soAvn in the vicinit}^ of Fallon that contains dodder and
sweet clover. Both of these are highh^ undesirable weeds in an
alfalfa field. The dodder especiall}' is hard to get rid of. Before
purchasing seed the farmer should test its germinating power. This
can be done by putting some of the seed between two la^^ers of moist
cloth in a covered dish, which is kept for two or three da^'S in a
moderateh^ warm room. If there is any doubt as to whether or not
the alfalfa seed contains dodder, a sample may be sent to the experi-
ment farm for examination.

In breaking an alfalfa sod to use the land for another crop, the
alfalfa should be " crowned '' — that is, the land plowed to a depth
of 2 or 3 inches with a plow having a sharp share. After " crown-
inff " the field should lie without irrigation for six Sveeks or more,
when it may be plowed deep and put into crop without serious
trouble. If an alfalfa field is plowed deep the first time, the crowns
have sufficient roots still attached to them to permit the development
of new shoots and it is very hard to keep these reestablished plants
in subjection.

On the Truckee-Carson project three cuttings of alfalfa are ob-
tained each year and the average yield is probably about 4 tons per
acre. To secure the maximum yield the alfalfa should be cut before
the new basal shoots (that appear soon after the alfalfa begins blos-
soming) are high enough to be cut by the mower. To cut off these
basal shoots retards the neAv growth. Alfalfa may be safely pastured
in the fall after the third cutting, provided care is taken to see that
it is not cropped too closely.

At the present time alfalfa is grown for hay production almost to
the exclusion of every other forage crop. To replace alfalfa any
other crop must possess some point of superiority, either in the yield
or in the quality of forage produced. Such a crop has not yet been
found for this region.

GRAIN HAY.

Grain hay is an excellent crop in connection Avith alfalfa when the
latter is first seeded. The grain protects the young alfalfa from the
winds and to some extent prevents the crusting of the soil. A small
early crop of hay is produced that may prove very acceptable to the
farmer wlio has as yet no well-established field of alfalfa.

■ PEARL TMILLET AND SORGIirM.

Pearl millet and sorghum produce about the same yield per acre as
alfalfa, but they are more expensive to raise and the quality of the
forage is not so good. Sorghum, however, may be seeded on new

[Cir. 78]

AGRICULTURAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT. 13

land in preference to alfalfa ^vhen a hay crop is necessary the first
season. Sorghum usually grows well on new land and is fairly toler-
ant of alkali. It will probably give better yields if sown thickly in
rows about 3 feet, apart and cultivated once or twice during the
season, though where the soil is in good tilth a better quality of hay
may result from sowing the seed broiulcast or with a grain drill.

CORN.

Corn sown thickly, either in rows to be cultivated or with a grain
drill, so as to produce small stalks, may prove valuable to grow in a
small way for the feeding of dairy stock. Corn should produce from
4 to 10 tons of fodder per acre and it is a crop that is used extensively
in the dairy sections for feeding milch cows. On some of the rich
black lands of the project corn planted for grain is a profitable crop,
and with the development of a demand for this grain for feeding live
stock it w^ill probably be extensively grown.

PASTURE CROPS.

There are not at present any successful pastures in the Truckee-
Carson project where a mixture of grasses has been used. With a
pasture of pure alfalfa or clover there is always danger of bloat with
dairy and beef cattle. At Fernley there is a field of mixed alfalfa
and smooth brome-grass {Bromm inerniis) wdiich has been cut annu-
ally for hay. This field could probably be safely pastured wdthout
danger of bloat, but it is not known whether brome-grass can be
successfully grown on the lower land of the project at Fallon. Since
brome-grass starts very slowly when first sown, it might be well to
sow the seed with a gi^ain crop and allow the grass to get fairly well
started and then seed the alfalfa the following year. Or where
an alfalfa stand has become thin from hard pasturing, brome-
grass might be seeded in with a grain drill after disking the land

thoroughly.

SUGAR BEETS.

Now that a sugar-beet factory has been built, sugar beets are
likely to become one of the principal money-making crops of the
Truckee-Carson project. Good beets have been produced experi-
mentally on the river-bottom soil, sandy-desert soil, and the black
soil of the Stillwater and Douglass districts. Sugar beets are quite
tolerant of alkali, but beets of good form and quality are not pro-
duced on low, wet soils. Sugar beets grown on plats having a high
water table (less than 2| feet) have a tendency to be short and much
branched.

It has been the experience of sugar-beet growers in other sections
where alfalfa is groAvn that the beets should not be planted on freshly

[Cir. 78]

14 AGRICULTURAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT.

plowed alfalfa lands, as the imdecayed roots and crowns of the
alfalfa seriously interfere with the proper seeding and cultivation of
the beets. It is therefore usuallv advisable to ffrow some intervening
crop, such as potatoes, between alfalfa and sugar beets. AMierever
possible, land that is to be used for sugar beets should be plowed the
previous autumn and before the beets are planted the land should be
thoroughly irrigated and worked into a fine tilth. This will not
onl}' insure a more uniform germination of the seed, but will also
make the first cultivation and hand weeding much easier.

Table V presents the results of analyses of sugar beets made during
the four vears 1907 to 1910, inclusive. In 1907 and 1908 the beets
analyzed were rather small, which probably partly accounts for the
higher sugar content shown for those years. The analyses in 1907
and 1908 were made by the United States Department of Agi-icul-
ture; those in 1909 and 1910 by Prof. Sanford Dinsmore, of the
University of Nevada. Accurate yields of beets in tons per acre have
not been obtained.

Table Y. — Analyses of suriar hcefs groirn on fJir Truckec-Caison Experiment

Farm. 1901 to 1910. incJiisive.

Year.

Number of
samples.

Type of soil.

1907
1908

1909
1910

18

21

21

34

7

8

6

1.3

3

Adobe

Sandy

AH types

New land

Gardens and alfalfa land

Stillwater and Douglass districts.

Unknown

Miscellaneous

STic;ar in
juice.

Per cent.
21.55
18.2
20.0
16.26
15.8
16.95
17.1
15.74
17.0

Sugar in
beet.

Per cent.

15.5

15.0

16.1

16.4

14.93

16.11

Purity.

Per cent.

87.3

87.8

89.95

80.0

80.9

86.4

89.78

81.8

87.5

VEGETABLES.

Most of the common vegetables are so easily grown that every
farmer should have a garden large enough to supplj' his family
throughout the season. On account of the distance to large markets,
market gardening on a large scale is not likely to be profitable, except
possibly with potatoes and onions.

The following vegetables are the kinds most easily grown : Water-
melons, muskmelons, squashes, pumpkins, cucumbers, tomatoes, tur-
nips, carrots, table beets, radishes, lettuce, kohl-rabi, onions, potatoes,
egg-plant, wonderberries, and garden huckleberries.

The reports of the vegetables that follow are from results obtained
at the Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm.

water:melons.

"Watermelons are easy to grow and are very productive on the
sandy soils of the project. On the experiment farm 12,101 pounds of
marketable melons were harvested from one-seventh of an acre. At

[Cir. 78]

AGRICULTURAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT. 15

this rate the yield was over 42 tons per acre. As the growing season
for melons is somewhat short in this section only the quick-growing
A'arieties should be grown. Table Vl shows the results obtained at
the exixn-iment farm during the season of 1910.

Table XI. — Watermelon yields, etc., on the Tnichtv-C arson Experiment Farm

in WIO.

Varieties.

Total
yield.'

Kentuclvy Wonder.

Fordhook ICarly

Uarris Karly

Klccklpy's Sweet...
Pridf^ of Nebraslea. .

Sweellieart

Kolb's Gem

Cole's Early

Dixie

Ironclad

Pounds.
1,172
1,02.5
947
944
921
825
820
819
75.5
707

.\veraee
weight.

Pounds.
12

10
7.V
V2l
9i
15.V
13'
10
10
14

Remarks.

Generally i;ood: solid.

(ienerally hollow and stringy.

Sweetest melon on trial.

Seems identical with Kleckley's Sweet.

Much like Harris; often hollow.
Very good quality.

' Yields given are from rows 80 feet long.

The best results with watermelons and similar vegetables will
pro1)ably be secured by first opening a deep furrow with a plow,
filling this furrow with well-rotted manure, and turning the earth
back over the manure and planting the seed on the ridge thus formed.
"\Anien putting in the seed the ground should be firmed down with a
hoe to insure bringing the seed into contact with the moist earth, so
that it may germinate promptly. Care should be used to prevent
flooding the soil above the seed and causing it to form a hard crust.

MUSK MELONS.

Muskmelons are easily grown and especially on the lighter soils
are verj^ productive. The following table gives the names of the
varieties grown and the comparative yields from rows 80 feet in
lengih. The Rocky Ford was the most popular variety. The Khiva
is a late-maturing variety, but will keep long into the winter.

Table VII. — M nsl-inchni ///r/r/.s', etc.. on the Truclccc-Carmn E.rperiment Farm

in 1910. •

Variety.

Rocky Ford

Extra Early TIackensack
Strawberry

Osage ....

Burrell's Gem

Paul Rose

Kliiva

[Cir. 78]

Date of

first
picking.

Aug. 9

Aug. 5
Aug. 12

Aug. 22

Aug. 27

Aug. 16

(?)

Yield.

Pounds.
3.55

412
357

293
264
210

(7)

Remarks.

No rotted or cracked mplons; high aver-
as;e of quality and market condition.

A good parly riielon.

Fine grain and quality; varies as to
sweetness.

Deep salmon flesh.

Best melon on Sept. 6.

A good variety for winter use.

16 AGRICULTUEAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CARSO-N PROJECT.

PUMPKINS AND SQUASHES.

Pumpkins and squashes should be groAvn in every farmer's gar-
den, as the}^ are very prolific and are valuable for table use. The
common field pumpkin and Japanese pie pumpkin are good varie-
ties. The Golden Crookneck squash is one of the best for summer
use, while the warty Hubbard is probably the best variety to store
awaj^ for winter. The White Bush Scalloped is a commonly grown
summer variety, but it does not have the richness of flavor of the
Golden Crookneck.

CUCUMBERS.

The White Spine. Klondike. Long Green, and Everbearing cucum-
bers" are desirable varieties for this section. The Gherkin is a small
prickly variety that is used only for pickling. It is an abundant
producer, and probably more people would grow this variety were
its qualities better known.

TOMATOES.

Tomatoes usuallj^ j^roduce a satisfactory crop, but are subject to
the attack of a disease known as tomato wilt {Fusarium sp.). This
disease attacks individual plants in the tomato plat. The first indi-
cation is a wilting of the leaves of the affected plants. The wilt
becomes more noticeable from day to day and finally results in the
death of the plants. No remedy is known, but the disease can be
checked by growing tomatoes always on soil that has not recently
been in that crojo and by pulling and burning all diseased plants as
fast as they appear. The following varieties of tomatoes are recom-
mended for j)lanting: Early Jewell, Dwarf Champion, New Stone,
New Coneless, New Globe, Golden Queen.

At the experiment farm 1,190 pounds of tomatoes were produced
from one-nineteenth of an acre, or a- yield of over 11 tons per acre, in
spite of the fact that over 25 per cent of the plants were affected with
tomato wilt.

' ONIONS.

On some of the soils of the Truckee- Carson project onions grow
well, so that it is profitable to grow them for the market, but it would
not be safe to attempt to grow them on a large scale on newly cleared
land. They grow so well, however, that each farmer can easily grow
enough for table use.

Good varieties for trial are the ]\lannnoth Pompeii, Silver King,
Prizetaker, and Red Wethersfield.

[Cir. 78]

AGRICULTURAL. OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT. 17
WONDERBERKIES AND UAKDEN HUCKLEBERRIES.

The fruit of the Avonderberry is about the nize of the bhieberry. It
is quite agreeable to eat raw, and it makes good jams and pies. On
account of its small size the fruit is slow to gather. The garden
huckleberry is larger than the wonderberry, but is thicker skinned^
requires more cooking, and does not have a pleasant taste when eaten
raw. The pies and jams made from these two kinds of berries have a
very similar taste. While these two fruits are far from perfection,
they seem to be popular, at least in this section, and deserve a place
in the family garden until more desirable fruits can be grown.

OTHER VEGETABLES.

Varieties of peppers grow well on some of the soils about Fallon,
but on some of the newly worked desert soil they do not produce sat-
isfactorily.

Potatoes grow best following alfalfa. To get the best results very
careful irrigation must be given, so that the crop may make continu-
ous growth without check until it approaches maturity, when no more
water should be given, othenvise a second growth will result. Good
varieties to grow are the Burbank, Peachblow, and Early Ohio.

FRUIT GROWING.

The following notes are the results of observations made during
the autumn seasons of 1909 and 1910 while inspecting the orchards
located on the older ranches in the project.

The first settlers along the Carson River made some fruit planta-
tions at an early date after their settlement in the valley. These
plantings were not large, as they were intended for home use. Many
trees 2.5 and 30 years old are still to be seen. No extensive plantings
are being made at this time, but many of the new settlers are putting
out home orchards.

The old orchards have suffered in various ways. Before the more
efficient irrigation system of the Eeclamation Service was installed
much damage was caused by drought in the latter part of the season.
Overcrowding and general neglect have caused unthrifty trees and
poor fruit. In these old apple orchards the trees were usually set
IG bv 10 or 20 bv 20 feet, with the result that the branches were soon
interlocked and the vigor of the trees lessened. Many of the new
settlers are making the same mistake. The right distance for apple
trees in this region is about 30 by 30 feet.

The hiffh-Avater table under some of the orchards seems to be kill-
ing out the trees.

[Cir. 78]

18 AGKICULTUEAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CAESON PROJECT.

The codling moth is the most troublesome orchard pest. No re-
medial measures have been taken to stay its ravages. Other insects
noted are the flat-headed borer, woolly aphis, and red spider. The
aphis does not appear to do great damage, but it is present in prac-
tically all orchards. Diseases of fruit trees do not appear prevalent.
Pear blight has been noted, but it is not general.

Home orchards have been profitable in the past, and in view of the
fact that orchard heaters have proved practical in many places it is
not unreasonable to expect that large orchards may be commercially
prohtable, especially on the higher lands where there is good natural
drainage. There are bench and sloping lands containing thousands
of acres which could not be utilized before the opening of the
Truckee-Carson project. These lands appear to be less frosty, and
can not be troubled by the rise of ground water.

The mature home orchards that are found on the old ranches have
not as a rule had good care, so it is hard to judge how well the va-
rious fruits would produce if they were given proper cultivation,
pruning, thinning, and frost protection.

The kinds of fruit now growing on the project, chiefly on the old
ranches, are as follows: Apples, pears, peaches, domestica plums,
prunes, quinces, apricots, nectarines, cherries, grapes, and such small
fruits as currants, gooseberries, and strawberries. Apples and pears
are the surest bearers. Specific varieties of fruits can not at this time

be recommended.

SUMMARY.

The Truckee-Carson Irrigation Project, in western Nevada, was
one of the first of the new regions to be opened under the reclama-
tion act of 1902. Practically all of the land for which water is
available has now been taken up, about 35,000 or 40,000 acres being
now under cultivation, most of it lying near the town of Fallon.

Near Fallon the United States Department of AgTiculture oper-
ates an experiment farm, where farm tests are being made of the
adaptability of various field, fruit, and garden crops, and where
methods of reducing the salt content of the soil are being worked out.

Most of the soil is a light sandy loam, but there are large areas of
fertile black soil, both of which types produce abundant crops.
There are small, irregular areas of hard, impervious soil difficult to
work and usually not producing satisfactory crops.

In those areas where it is impossible to grow crops on account of
the high salt content of the soil, little or no advantage can result
from flooding. Deep d it dies should be put through to lower the
water table. A comprehensive drainage system for the lower lands
has been planned and partly constructed, and this when completed

[Cir. 78]

AGRICULTURAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT. 19

will make it possible to keep the ground water below the limit of
serious harm.

Windstorms severe enough to kill new seedings of alfalfa and
injure small garden stuff occur occasionally in the spring. This diffi-
culty may bo obviated by ])lanting windbreaks, whicli should be one
of tiie first things undertaken. Carolina pojjhir, Norway poplar, Cot-
tonwood, balm of Gilead. black locust, tamarisk, and Russian oleaster
are desirable trees for this jMirpose.

Records for six j^ears show a maximum temperature at Fallon of
103° F. and a minimum of —15° F. As a general rule, farm opera-
tions are carried on throughout the winter months. The length of
the summer period varies in different parts of the project, and the
local topography has considerable influence on the occurrence of
frosts. The rainfall of the project is so light as to be of little benefit
to crops, the average fall for the past five years at Fallon being 4.91
inches.

The land may be cleared of brush by grubbing, dragging, or disk-
ing. ]\Iost of the land can be cleared and leveled at a cost of $15 to
$35 an acre.

Alfalfa is the principal source of income to the farmers. Three
cuttings are secured, and the average yield is about 1 tons per acre.
Barley and Avheat have been grown to some extent, but under most
conditions grain is not as profitable as alfalfa. The overproduction
of alfalfa without sufficient live stock to consume it, with a conse-
quent low price of the hay, is a possible danger. Grain, pearl millet,
sorghum, and corn may be grown as hay crops, but as yet no forage
crop has been found to replace alfalfa.

There are at present no successful pastures on the project where a
mixture of grasses has been used. With pure alfalfa or clover there
is always danger of bloat with dairy and beef cattle, and suitable
grasses for pasture are much needed.

There are as yet no commercial orchards on the project, but there
are sections where fruit growing might become commercially prof-
itable. Home orchards have been profitable in the past. Apples and
pears are the surest bearers, but peaches, domestica plums, prunes,
quinces, apricots, nectarines, cherries, grapes, and such small fruits
as currants, gooseberries, and strawberries are also grown. Specific
varieties of fruits can not at this time be recommended.

Experiments with sugar beets show that this ci'op may be profitably
grown on river-bottom soil, sandy-desert soil, and the black soil of
certain districts. The establishment of a sugar-beet factory on the
project will ])i()bably give impetus to this industry.

[Cir. 78]

20 AGRICULTURAL OBSERVATIONS ON TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT.

Most of the common garden vegetables are easily grown, water-
melons and mnskmelons being especially productive on the sandy soils
of the project.

Potatoes grow best following alfalfa. To get the best results care-
ful irrigation should be given to insure continuous growth. Good
varieties to grow are the Burbank. Peachblow, and Early Ohio.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C., March 27, 1911.

[Cir. 78]

Issued June 30, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 79.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

WINTER WHEAT IN WESTERN
SOUTH DAKOTA.

iBRAKY

xEW YORK
BY BOTANICAL

QAKDBM.

CECIL SALMON.
Plant Physiologist, Office of Grain Investigations.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1911

958y0'— Cir. T'J 11

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, Wiluam A. Taylor.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

[Cir. 79.]

2

B. P. I.— 677.

WINTER WHEAT IN WESTERN SOUTH

DAKOTA.

INTRODUCTION.

The value of winter wheat as a dry-land crop in western South
Dakota has been the subject of much discussion during the past few
years. The production of \dnter wheat in this area has not reached
proportions of commercial importance. Wyoming and Montana,
however, produced during the past season more than 7,250,000
bushels, and as the soil and climate of western South Dakota are
very similar to those of the States mentioned there is good reason
to beUeve that profitable returns may be obtained from the crop in
this region.

The advantages in favor of winter wheat, where it can be success-
fully grown, are better distribution of labor by fall seeding and early
haiwest; early maturity, and therefore less danger from hail, hot
winds, disease, etc.; greater drought resistance; and larger yields.
Its importance as a dry-land crop is due largely to its early maturity
and to its ability to produce a fair yield even in seasons of severe
drought.

Winter wheat has been grown at several points in western South
Dakota, in some instances for a number of years. While not uni-
formly successful, the crop promises good results when properly
handled. The aim of this paper is to outline the best methods of
growing tliis grain as shown by observation and by experiments that
have been conducted. So Uttle has been done, however, that it is
not possible to say that any method is certainly the best. Yet it is
thought that a summary of results obtained wiU be of value both in
pointing out some of the mistakes most commonly made and in
indicating the methods most likely to be successful.

DIFFICULTIES LIKELY TO BE ENCOUNTERED.

THE WINTERKILLING OF WHEAT.

Winterkilling is the injury most commonly feared in gromng winter
wheat and is the principal limiting factor in the northward extension
of the winter-wheat belt. It is due to extreme cold, to exposure

[Cir. 79.] 3

4 WINTER WHEAT IN WESTERN SOUTH DAKOTA.

and injury of the roots by the heaving of the soil, and to other causes.
The extent of injury differs widely with the different varieties grown
and is affected to a less extent by the preparation of the soil and
seed and by the time, rate, and method of seeding.

During the three years in which tests have been conducted at the
Bellefourche Experiment Farm,^ situated near Newell, S. Dak., the
winterkilling of the best varieties has seldom exceeded 25 per cent,
while the average is less than 15 per cent. The stooling of these
varieties has been such that the actual loss in bushels has probably
been slight. At the present writing (Apr. 1, 1911), the fourth crop
has come through the winter apparently in good condition.

It seems that a field may be greatly injured by winterkilling and
yet produce a good yield, especially if the damage is evenly dis-
tributed throughout the field. Winterkilhng of over 50 per cent at
the Bellefourche Experiment Farm has in some cases been followed
by yields of 20 bushels per acre and over.

The soil of the Bellefourche Experiment Farm is a heavy clay of
the Pierre clay formation, commonly known as gumbo. Apparently
it does not heave, and this fact has undoubtedly diminished the loss
from winterkilling. On the other hand the winters have sometimes
been severe and the plats have been so located that they received
very little protection from snow.

THE BLOWING OF THE SOIL.

Damage from the blowing of the soil in high winds is an important
consideration on the dry lands. The danger is greatest on soils con-
taining sand or fine gravel and in fields fully exposed to the wind.
In the late winter and early spring months, the velocity of the wind
is often great enough to carry the soil particles rapidly across the
field, cutting off the plants near the ground and exposing the roots
to the weather. This condition is especially trying on dry farms, as
dry winters are common and the plants and soil are left in a condi-
tion most favorable to rapid evaporation. Undoubtedly much of the
loss ascribed to winterkilling may be traced to this cause.

The extent of injury likely to be done is affected by the location of
the field, ridges being exposed to and valleys or swales being more or
less protected from the full violence of the wind. Consequently
fields partly protected are less likely to be damaged than are those
fully exposed to the prevailing northwest winds.

Little progress has been made in devising methods of handling
cultivated fields to prevent blowing. The problem is especially dif-
ficult for the dry-land farmer, as the fine soil mulcli, which is so

1 The Bellefourche Experiment Faiin is in charge of the Office of Western Agricultural Extension of
the Bureau of Plant Industry. The investigations reported in this cu-cular were conducted in cooperation
with that oflic*.
[Cir. 79.]

WINTER WHEAT IN WESTERN SOUTH DAKOTA. 5

necessary to conserve moisture, increases the danger from blowing.
It is necessary, as far as possible, to choose some middle course which
will involve the least loss of moisture and at the same time minimize
this danger. Implements with cutting blades that fine the soil out
of all proportion to the value of the work done should not be used.
The disk and spring-tooth harrow are preferable, as they tend to
bring tlie larger particles and lumps of dirt to the surface and allow
the finer particles to reach lower levels of the soil stratum.

It is important that some method of crop rotation be followed that
will supi)ly humus to the soil, as possibly no other factor is so effi-
cient in cementing the soil particles together and preventing blowing.

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.

Several methods of preparing the soil for winter wheat have been
advocated, such as seeding in small-grain stubble without previous
preparation; seeding on corn ground between the standing rows
with a 1-horse drill ; seeding on corn ground after preparing with a
disk and harrow; seeding on early fall plowing; and seeding on land
prepared by summer-fallowing.

The first two methods are employed to catch and hold the snow
and thus prevent winterkilhng. The average snowfall in western
South Dakota is rather light and the snow seldom stays on the
ground during the entire winter. For this reason the benefit hkely
to be derived is not so great as m sections where the snowfall is
hea^aer. On the other hand, there is apparently not as much danger
from alternate thawing and freezing as in sections where there is
more moisture, so that protection is not so necessary.

Possibly the chief difficulty likely to be encountered in growing
this crop on any but summer-tilled land is to conserve sufficient
moisture in the soil to germinate the grain and properly maintain
its growth until the spring rains begin. The same difficulty also
applies to summer fallow not properly cidtivated or when the rainfall
is so deficient that no moisture can be stored in the soil. The autumn
preci])itation is usually very light and so distributed that it is often
insufficient to start the crop. It frequently happens that there is
sufficient moisture to germinate the grain but not enough to main-
tain its growth, in which case it may be greatly injured or killed by
continued drought. On tlie other hand summer tillage is likely to
increase the danger from blomng, as the tilth necessary to conserve
the moisture leaves the soil in such a condition that it is easUy car-
ried away by the \\'ind.

The lack of experimental data makes it impossible to say just how
essential is summer fallow in tlie production of winter wheat. The
relative cost, yield, and chances of failure of grain grown on summer
fallow and by other methods form a complex problem wliich will prob-

[Cir. 79.]

6 WINTER WHEAT IN WESTERN SOUTH DAKOTA.

ably require several years to solve. Summer-fallowing is the method
most mdely advocated in Montana and western Nebraska and will ap-
parently give the most satisfactory results in western South Dakota.

Wlien heavy rains occur in the late summer and early autumn
months, it may be found advisable to increase the winter-wheat
acreage by seeding on corn ground or on early fall ploA\dng. The
former is probably preferable. In either case there should be sufli-
cient moisture in the soil to keep the crop in good condition until
spring. Otherwise, the plants may die or go into the wdnter in a
weakened condition.

A good summer fallow consists essentially in early plowing and suffi-
cient cultivation afterwards to conserve the moisture. A good plan
is to plow in the spring as soon as possible after seeding, or earlier
if desired. The grovmd may then be worked at once with disk and
harrow, or it may be allowed to remain as left by the plow in the
expectation of heavy rains in May and June. The method to be fol-
lowed depends upon the quantity of moisture in the soil at the time
of plowing. In either case cultivation should foUow every rain suffi-
ciently heavy to connect with the moisture below or to supply more
moisture to the soil than will be lost by the cultivation. A practice
sometimes advocated is that of plowing in the fall soon after the crop
is removed and allowing the ground to remain rough until spring,
when it is cultivated as in the former case.

No matter by what method winter wheat is growTi, a firm seed bed
is essential. This is, perhaps, one of the most important factors con-
nected with the preparation of the soil, as upon it depend to a large
extent the supply of available moisture and the germination and

growth of the plant.

VARIETIES TO GROW.

The growing of varieties not adapted to the locality is a great
drawback to the success of a crop. This fact has been clearly demon-
strated by experiments conducted on the Great Plains and by the
experience of farmers. Tests of the value of different varieties have
been conducted for three years at the Belief ourche Experiment Farm,
with the result that no wheat has been i'ound superior to the Rus-
sian winter wheats, Kharkof and Turkey. Many other varieties
from various parts of the United States and Canada have been grown
in comparative tests, but practically all of them wdnterkilled entirely
or to such an extent that very low yields were obtained. Only a few
were at all promising. These results are so fully substantiated by
tests conducted elsewhere that it would seem a waste of time and
money to grow any but these varieties, except in an experimental way,

Home-srown seed or seed raised under conditions similar to those
in this region should be used, as only in this way will the best results
be obtained.

[Cir. 79.]

WINTER WHEAT IN WESTERN SOUTH DAKOTA. 7

PREPARATION OF SEED.

The seed should be carefully cleaned and graded to remove all dirt,
weed seeds, and small slirunken kernels. If smut is present the seed
should be treated, as there is great loss from this parasite in seasons
favorable for its development. One method is that of wetting the
grain with a solution consisting of 1 pound of formalin to 40 or 50
gallons of water and then covering with a blanket or tarpaulin. The
grain is allowed to remain covered for about two hours and is then
spread out and occasionally stirred until dry, when it may be stored
in a bin or in sacks free from smut. By this method, however, the
smut balls are left in the grain and may break in the sacks in hauling
or in the drill and thus infect the grain to some extent. If the grain
is steeped in barrels or vats, or a good smut machine is used, the smut
balls can be skimmed off and all infection prevented. The grain is
sometimes sown udthout diying, in wliich case it is necessary to seed
at a little heavier rate because of the swelling of the grain when wet.

TIME OF SEEDING.

The general belief is that w'nter wheat must be sowoi early in this
section to obtam a good 3"ield, the time usually considered best bemg
from about August 15 to September 1. However, the results so far
obtained at the Bellefourche Experiment Farm do not support this
view.

In the fall of 1907 five plats of Turkej'- winter wheat were sown at
intervals of about two weeks, beginning September 1. The highest
jield (25.5 bushels per acre) was obtained from the plat seeded Novem-
ber 1. The plats sown October 1 and October 15 3delded nearly as
much, but the one seeded September 15 jdelded only 20.3 bushels per
acre and that seeded September 1, 23 bushels. These plats were
sown on new land broken during Jmie, 1907, backset m August, and
worked with a disk and harrow until a good seed bed was obtained.
The test was continued in the same manner in the seasons of 1908-9
and 1909-10, except that the first plat was sown August 15 and the
land was prepared by summer-fallowing. In 1909 the best yield (43
bushels per acre) was obtamed from the seeding of October 1. The
plats seeded August 15 and November 1, which were tlie earhest
and latest seedings, respectively, 3aelded 5 bushels less, which was
the lowest yie'd obtained.

In 1909 two plats were sown on each aate at intervals of two weeks
from August 1 5 to November 1 . Those sown October 1 failed to
come up because of cold weather soon after seedmg, and some of the
plats were injured by blowing. Of those harvested, the best average
yields (19.3 bushels per acre in each case) were obtained from the
plats seeded August 15 and September 15. The plat sown Septem-

[Cir. T't. 1

8 WINTER WHEAT IN WESTERN SOUTH DAKOTA.

ber 1 produced the lowest yield (8.3 bushels per acre), this low yield
bemg due to the poor germination.

The above results show that a uniform rule can hardly be laid down
as to the best date for seeding.

In every case a good stand in the fall has been followed by a good
yield, except in one or two instances when the plats were injured by
blowing. For this reason, it seems that the main effort should be
directed toward obtaining a good stand rather than toward seeding
at a certain date.

If a good seed bed is prepared and there is sufficient moisture pres-
ent to germinate the grain and keep it gro's\dng vigorously, early seed-
ing is advisable, as the temperature at an earlier date is likelj^ to be
more favorable to germination and rapid growth. It is not advisable,
however, to seed on poorly prepared soil simply for the sake of seed-
ing early, when a few days' delay would permit the preparation of a
good seed bed. On the other hand, it is not well to i)ut off seeding
until very late, as there is grave danger that the seed will never come
up.

It appears that to obtain a good yield a good stand is necessary, and
a good stand depends upon the presence of certain conditions of mois-
ture, temperature, and soil. These will vary in different seasons and
in different localities, so that no rule that wall apply in all cases can be
given. Each farmer must study his own conditions and decide for
himself what course to follow.

METHOD OF SEEDING.

It is essential that the seed be placed in close contact with soil con-
taining moisture. To insure this it is best to seed with a drill, as by
so doing the seed can be placed at the desired depth and the soil
packed around it. By drilling, a more uniform stand is obtained and
a smaller quantity of seed is required than by seeding broadcast.

BATE OF SEEDING.

The exceptional stooling of winter wheat makes it unnecessary and
inadvisable to seed this gram as heavily as spring wheat. The usual
rate recommended for semiarid conditions is about 3 pecks per acre, a
less quantity sometimes being advocated. With a well-prepared seed
bed this amount is probably sufficient for western South Dakota con-
ditions. Unless damaged by %vinterkilling or other causes, winter
wheat is more likely to be too thick than too thin at harvest time.
While a very thick stand may slightly increase the yield in a favor-
able year, it may greatly decrease it in an unfavorable one.

TREATMENT AFTER SEEDING.

It is usually considered advisable to harrow winter grain lightly
soon after it starts growth in the spring, for the purpose of conserving

[Cir. 79.]

WINTER WHEAT IN WESTERN SOUTH DAKOTA, 9

the moisture. Whether the difference in jaeld will pay for the labor
involved is an open question. More experimental data arc required
before it can definite!}' be stated when and under what conditions
harrowin<]j will be found beneficial. It will probably be of most value
on soils likely to crust and in seasons when a heavy precipitation in
the winter and early spring is followed by drought. On soils likely to
blow, harrowmg should not be done until this danger is past.

Where a field is badly damaged by winterkilling, good judgment
should be exercised in deciding whether the crop should remain or the
fiehl be disked for spring grain. Undoubtedly many fields have been
reseeded that would have made good jaelds had they been left in
winter wheat. The ability of the Kharkof and Turkey wheats to
recover is great, and, because of stooling, a uniform, tliin stand in the
spring will usually result in a good stand by harvest. The slowness
of winter wheat to start growth in the spring after a hard winter is
likely to mislead the farmer. In this connection it may be noted
,that clean land, free from weeds, is essential. Otherwise, after a
severe winter the weeds may get the start of the wheat and greatly
reduce the yield.

SUMMARY.

Wliere successfully grown, winter wheat possesses many advantages
over spring wheat, such as better distribution of labor, earlier maturity,
greater drought resistance, and larger j^ields. There is apparently
no reason why it should not be growoi successfully in western South
Dakota.

The principal difficulties likely to be encountered are winterkilling
and the blowing of the soil. The loss from winterkilling can be
greatly reduced by growing the best varieties and by proper prepara-
tion of the seed and soil. Much damage from blowing can be pre-
vented by selecting fields for winter wheat which, because of their
location, are more or less protected from the wind. Implements
which fine the soil more than necessary should not be used.

From the small amount of data available, it seems that summer-
fallowing is probably the best method of preparing the soil for winter
wheat. When other methods are used, the germination and gi-c^-th
of the wheat are uncertain because of the low average autunm rain-
fall. In seasons when the precipitation in the summer and early fall
Ls heavy it may be advisable to increase the winter-wheat acreage by
seeding on corn ground or on early fall plowing.

The general belief that winter wheat must be sown early is not sup-
ported by the results obtained at the Bellefourche Expermient Farm.
It seenLs of much more importance to prepare a good seed bed, to use
good varieties, and to sow when moisture, temperature, and soil con-
ditions are best than to seed at any specified time. Early seeding is

[Clr. 79.]

10 WINTER WHEAT IN WESTERN SOUTH DAKOTA.

advisable if a good seed bed is provided and there is sufficient moisture
in the soil to germinate the grain and maintain it in good condition
until spring.

Success with winter wheat depends very much upon the varieties
grown. As far as known, the Kharkof and Turkey varieties are
best for this region. Thin seeding is advisable. Tliree pecks of good
seed per acre are probably sufficient.

Winter wheat should be sown with a drill, as in this way a better
and more imiform stand is secured.

The Turkey and Kharkof varieties have great ability to recover
after a hard mnter. When damaged, good judgment should be
exercised before reseeding to spring grain.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, May 9,1911.

[Cir. 79.]

o

Issued September 2.S, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 80.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL
SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

IBRARY
YORK

°^ .N'.CAL

H. N. VINALL, '-<«^i>fiW' /

Assistant Agrostologist, Forage-Crop Investigations.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1911

19;J1°— Cir. SO— 11 1

[Cir. 80]
2

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beveult T. Galloway.
Assislnni Chief of Bureau, William A. Taylor.
EiJitor, J. E. Rockwell,
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

n. r. I.— 673.

FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL
SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

INTRODUCTION.

The passage of the Kinkaid homestead hxw ^ caused a considerable
influx of settlers into the sand-hill section of Nebraska. Many of
those who filed claims on tracts of (UO acres of this land were entirely
unacquainted with agricultural practices and, besides, lacked the
funds jDroperly to stock and equip their farms. The result has been
that a number Avere forced to abandon their homesteads before
obtaining title, while a great many others stayed only long enough
to secure a deed to the land so they could sell it ; then they, too, gave
up the struggle. Xot only were the settlers themselves unacquainted
with the agricultural conditions in the sand hills, but there was
practically no source from which information was available.

It was with a view of obtaining a basis for recommendations in
connection with the growing of forage crops that investigations con-
sisting of cooperative experiments and a study of the practices of
the more successful farmers were inaugurated. In the spring of
1908 a series of tests of forage crops was started in cooperation with
farmers located under various conditions that were t^'pical of the
.-and-hill section. These experiments w^ere arranged not only to
determine the comparative adaptability and value of various crops,
but also to determine the best methods of culture. In the dry-valley
region alfalfa (including several varieties), sw^eet clover, awnless
brome-grass, slender wheat-grass, western wheat-grass, orchard grass,
tall oat-grass, millet, and sorghum were tested extensively. Alfalfa,
hweet clover, red clover, alsike clover, awnless brome-grass, timothy,

^ This law, known as the Kinkaid Act, amended tlie Federal homestead laws, making it
possible throughout the region indicated on the map (flg. 1) for settlers to file claims
on 040 acres of land instead of 100. There were excluded from this act only such lands
in the indicated district as the Secretary of the Interior mij^ht deem reasonably practi-
cable to irrigal"'. It was also provided that settlers who had previously filed on a home-
stead in the rej;ion affected sliould liave, for i)0 days after the passage of the act, prefer-
ential right to make entry on sufficient additional land to increase their holdings to 640
acres, the stipulation in regard to final proof being that the entryman must prove affirma-
tively that he has placed upon the lands entered permanent improvements of the value of
not less than .$1.:^.") for each acre included in his entry.

[Cir. 80]

3

FOEAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

redtop, Italian n^e-grass, and perennial rye-grass were among the
most important crops tested in the wet-vallej^ region.

In the years 1909 and 1910 the tests were continued, in many cases
with the same cooperators, but on a larger scale than in 1908. The
plats varied from one-fourth of an acre to an acre in area, except
where reseeding experiments were conducted, in which case they were
usually much larger. The tests were inspected during the growing
season each year, so that the behavior of the various crops was studied
at the most favorable time for determining their value.

The results of these experiments, together with the data obtained
from the most successful farmers, have made it possible to make
some suggestions of a rather specific nature regarding the best
methods of improving forage-crop conditions in the sand-hill sec-
tion. While the suggestions and recommendations contained in this
circular must in a measure be considered as tentative on account of

Yi,;. 1. Map of Nebraska, showing the sand-hill section as indicated by Prof. Erwin

Hinckley Barbour in his geolosieal map of that State. The space inclosed by the heavy
line shows the district affected by the Klnkaid homestead law.

the newness of the problems, it is hoped that they will be of con-
siderable benefit to the farmers already in the sand hills and also
to prospective settlers.

LOCATION OF THE SAND HILLS.

The sand-hill .'-oction of Nebra.-ka. as shown in the geological map
prepared by Prof. Erwin Hinckley Barbour, lies between 98° and
103° w^est longitude, and is bounded on the north by the Niobrara
Eiver and on the southwest by the North Platte Iliver. (Fig. 1.)
It includes practically all of the counties of Cherry, Garfield, Loup,
Blaine, Thomas, Hooker. Grant, McPherson, and Garden ; about half
of Sheridan, Wheeler, Brown, Rock, and Logan ; and considerable areas
in Holt, Greeley, Valley, Custer, Lincoln, Keith, Morrill, Sioux, Per-
kins. Chase, and Dundy'Counties. The space designated covers nearly
20,000 square miles, or about one-fourth the total area of the State.

[Cir. SO]

FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE SAND-HILL AREA.

The northoni and western parts of this sand-hill area, lying in the
counties of Holt, liock. Brown, Cherr}', Sheridan, Morrill, Garden,
and (Irant. are characterized as the ''wet-valley region." In this
recion the vallevs follow a general east-and-west direction and are
usually quite broad and flat at the eastern or lowest end, which in
most cases contains a shallow lake of varying dimensions, the largest
of these being Dad"s Lake, which is 4 to G miles long and 1 to 2 miles
broad. In wet seasons the lakes increase in size and in dry seasons
the smaller ones disappear entirely. xVlthough in periods of extreme
drought, like that of ISOi, very few of the large lakes dry up com-
pletely, their varying size renders the area of the hay meadows
which surround them inconstant.

l"li;. 2. — A blow-onl near Alliiiuce. Xelir.

The dry- valley region occupies most of the sand-hill section out-
side of the counties just named. It lies south of the former, and its
distinguishing characteristic is its more abrupt and narrower valleys
interspersed Avith ridges of sand hills. These valleys also are inclined
in a general east-and-west direction, contain some fairly good soil in
the bottoms, and lia\e undergi'ound drainage sufficient to remove the
surplus water. This dry-valley region grades insensibly into more
irregular and chop]iy sand hills, wliich have no well-defined valleys
between them and which contain little or no soil suitable for agricul-
tural purposes. These chopp}^ sand hills are found south of Thed-
ford and Ilalsey in Thomas County, between the ^Middle Loup and
Dismal Rivers. They are entirely useless for agricultural purposes
other than grazing. On the tops of manj'^ of the hills are irregular
conical depressions in the loose, shifting sand, locally known as
" blow-outs." These depressions, swept out and ke^^t clear of vegeta-

[Clr. 80]

FOEAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

tion through the action of the wind, vary in depth from 15 to 50 feet
and present the most difficult problem to deal Avith in the improve-
ment of the sand hills. (Fig. 2.)

CLIMATE OF THE SAND-HILL AREA.

The forty-second parallel of latitude passes through about the
middle of the sand-hill district. The temperatures in the hills are
about the same as those along this parallel in eastern Nebraska and
Iowa, except that the rapid radiation of heat at night from the sandy
soil and the higher altitude make the nights cooler and bring the
fall frosts somewhat earlier. In the western portion of the sand hills
the climate is also more variable and the changes in temperature
more sudden. The rainfall varies from 23 inches in the eastern part

tllJlLi.

I^^iG. 3. — View between Seneca and Mullen, Nebr., showing the character of the native

vegetation.

of Holt County to IG inches in Sheridan and Morrill Counties. As
a rule this rain comes at a seasonable time, being most abundant dur-
ing the growing season of crops, from the middle of April to the first

of August.

NATIVE VEGETATION.

The entire sand-hill district is fairly well, covered at the present
time with grasses. (Fig. 3.) Among the most common species^
are the following:

On the tops and sides of the sand-hill ridges: Long-leafed reed-
grass {Calamovilfa Jongifolia), redfieldia {Redfleldia flexuosa),

1 Rydberg, P. A. Flora of the Sand riills of Nebraska. Contributions from the United
State's National Herbarium, vol. :'., pp. 1. "9-143. Also Pound, Itoscoe, and Clements, F. E.
The Phytogeography of Nebraska, vol. 1, pp. 34.5-:i47 and 352-308.
[Cir. 80]

FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA. 7

prairie imihlenbergia [Muhlenhergia 'pungens). TTalFs beard-grass
{Andropogoii hallii), little bluestem {Andropogon scopaiiiis)^ west-
ern stipa {Stipa comata)^ haii'like eragrostis {Eragrostis trirh aides),
and Onjzopsis hymenoides. These are common on the ridges of both
the wet-valley and the dry-valley regions. Besides these grasses two
species of Psoralea and two of Euphorbia are common. The sand
cherry {Prunus hesseyi) is also widely distributed and is a prominent
feature of the sand-hill flora.

In the hay meadows of the wet-valley region the most valuable
grasses are the following: Big bluestem {Andropogon furcatiis),
switch-grass {Faiikum virgatum), western wheat-grass {Agropijron
sniiihii), Indian grass {Sojv/hcustnim nidans), wWd timothy {MiiJden-
hergia racemosa), slender wheat-grass (Agropyron tenerum), por-
cupine grass {Stipa spartea), and nodding wild rye {Elymus cana-
densis).

In the moist soils adjacent to the lakes these better grasses are
mixed with oi superseded by sedges {Carex spp.) and rushes {Jancus
spp.), several species of each being prominent. AMiere the ground is
marshy in such situations, the tall marsh-grass {Sparfinu cynosu-
roides) and several species of Equisetum are also abundant. In the
better soils of the dry valleys are found, besides a great many of the
hay grasses named, patches of the side oats and blue gramas {Boute-
loua curtipendula and Bouteloua oligostachya) and sometimes buffalo
grass {Bvlbilis dacfyloides) .

The sand-hill vegetation is very rich in species of grasses, and no
attempt will be made to enumerate them further. During the spring
and .sunnner months these grasses are quite succulent and are efficient
in producing both beef and milk, but in the fall and winter, with the
exception of the bufl'alo and grama grasses, they are killed by frost
and are not equal to the pasturage on the hard soils farther south,
where the percentage of the last-named grasses is larger.

The hay secured in the wet-valley region is abundant and if cured
properly makes a good roughage for cattle and horses, but it lacks
the protein element necessary to sustain strength and produce growth
when fed without grain.

CROP LIMITATIONS.

The extremely sandy character of the soil precludes any extensive
system of small-grain or corn farming, such as is carried on in the
eastern and southern parts of the State. This region is. therefore,
and doubtless will remain essentially a stock-growing section. Pro-
spective settlers should understand this point and make their plans
accordingly.

Where a settler can ()l)tain a large body of land, including some
hay flats, he may profitably engage in the production of beef cattle

[Cir. 80]

8 FORAGE CEOPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

or of horses and mules. If he has only a limited area, like 640 acres,
and is in reach of a shippinc; point, he had better substitute for the
beef cattle a dairy herd.

IMPORTANCE OF A LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROP.

None of these sandy lands should be farmed more than two years
successivel}^ to corn or any other intertilled crop. The stockman must
have grain or some substitute for it to feed his animals during the
winter in order to maintain their strength and enable the females
to enter the sjjring season strong enough to produce and care for their
young. A feed is desirable which will also prevent the usual shrink-
age during the Avinter of the young cattle. To supplement the native
hay with grain shipped in and hauled long distances over sandy roads
would be too expensive. This feed must be grown on the ranch.
A^Hiat crop will fill this need? Obviously it must be one that can
be grown without clean cultivation and which in itself does not
markedly deplete the fertility of the soil. For such a crop we must
look among the legumes.

COMPARISON OF BROADCASTED AND CULTIVATED CROPS.

Continuous clean cultivation of a sandy soil destroys the vegetable
matter remaining in it from the grass roots, and in a short time,
generally three years, the soil begins to blow. Soon, if such methods
are continued, a large percentage of the crop will be cut off by the
drifting sand each year just as it is coming up, and when the field
is abandoned the wind will continue to remove the soil until the sur-
face is lowered to a depth of 6 or 7 feet and the land becomes prac-
tically worthless, even for gi*azing purposes. Such experiences as
these have induced the sand-hill farmer to look about for some crop
which does not need cultivation, and preferably a perennial one for
which the soil does not need to be plowed each year.

PRESENT CROPPING SYSTEM.

Most farmers are depending at the present time on growing corn
and lye with a small acreage of oats and supplementing this with
large quantities of native hay. This hay, if cut at the right time and
cured properly, would be fairly efficient in carrying stock through
the winter, but most of it is put up under contract and little care is
used either to cut it at the proper time or to get it baled or stacked
while it is bright and sweet smelling. On account of the scarcity of
grain, this indifferently handled hay becomes the principal reliance
of the ranchman for his cattle during the winter. Feeding it as the
sole diet usually results in the cattle going on the grass in a very
weak condition in the spring. If there are many bad storms, great

[Cir. 80]

FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA. 9

nuiubers will be lost; ami oven if the older ones succeed in weather-
ing the storms, a large percentage of calves will be lost on account of
the weak condition of their mothers.

A small quantit}' of grain fed with the native hay daily would
improve conditions a great deal, but the planting of most of the farm
land to corn for a few years would be ruinious. Even sorghum,
which would be some improvement on the native hay, presents the
same difficulty on account of the necessity for its cultivation. Sor-
ghum is a slightly stronger feed than native hay. but there is the same
objection to its culture that there is to corn when planted in rows
and cultivated on truly sandy soils. On the harder soil at the edge
of the sand-hill region sorghum can be utilized profitably on account
of its drought resistance. Settlers will find it useful t)n the newly
turned sod in the sand hills, but it can not l)e utilized as a permanent
crop on account of its effect on the soil.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRAZING CONDITIONS ON THE SAND RIDGES.

In the spring of 1908 tests Avith various grasses, including brome-
grass, orchard grass, tall oat-grass, slender wheat-grass, and western
wheat-grass, were conducted to detennine whether a cultivated grass
more palatable than native vegetation might be found that could be
grown more successfully on the tops and sides of the sand ridges.
Brome-grass proved more promising than any of the other grasses
under such conditions, but it does not 'flourish in the loose sand.
Most of the seedings, except those on land heavily manured, have
been failures so far as practical results are concerned. Xo sugges-
tions for the improvement of these grazing conditions can be made
at the present time except that the blov/-outs may be remedied some-
what by seeding them to sweet clover or brome-grass and then
scattering manure or straw over the loose sand to prevent it from
blowing. (Fig. 4.) It is hoped that in time a grass may be found
which will prove sufficiently aggressive to thrive on the loose, sand}''

ridges

USE OF CLOVER IN THE WET- VALLEY REGION.

As nearl}' every farmer knows, clover hay carries a high per-
centage of protein, and for putting on flesh and inducing growth
it is much better than even timothy hay. One of the ways, then, of
filling the need for protein is to mix a good percentage of clover
with the native hay. It is strongly urged that this be done, as all
the clovers grow naturally on the moist lands of the hay flats. In
fact, no part of the United States seems able to produce clover with
less care or attention than this wet-valley region, and its use here is
strongly urged. Red clover seeded in 180.") near Chambers, Xebr.,
in meadow sod, without plowing or other cultivation, has reseeded
1031°— Cir. 80— n 2

10 FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

itself from year to year in haying- and is to-day in better condition
and shows a better stand than ever before.

Wliere tlie meadow is inclined to be wet, alsike clover is best, bnt
in all other locations common red clover is preferable. It is better
than alsike clover on account of its larger grow^th, and especially its
larger leaves, and better than mammoth because it is earlier and
will make two cuttings in one season.

The advisability of seeding white clover under any circumstances
is questioned. It grows readily, but does not make a hay crop, and
in pastures where it is too abundant it induces the " slobbers " in
horses.

Fig. 4. — Field showing sweet clover st^ecled in a lilow-oiit near Ainsworth, Xebr.

TIME OF SEEDING.

In the tests previously mentioned, good results were obtained from
both fall and spring seeding of clover, but as yet there are not suf-
ficient data to warrant definite recommendations. On account of
the severity of the winter, however, spring seeding Avould seem to
have the advantage. When seeding on uncultivated land, the earlier
it can be done the better, as the clover will then start at a time when
the grass is not growing rapidly. On cultivated land it can be sowni
with a grain crop, such as oats or barley. A better stand is usually
secured, however, where no nurse crop is used.

RATE OF SEEDING.

It is advisable to use sufficient seed to insure a stand even when
sowing on meadowland. Many disappointments have arisen from a
half-hearted scattering of a few pounds of clover seed over a -lO-acre

[Cir. 80]

FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA. 11

meadow. Twelve pounds of red clover to the acre or 8 pounds of
alsike are usually the quantities recommended and are sufficient to
give a complete stand when proper methods of seeding are used. It
is better to have a good stand of clover over 5 acres of the meadow,
where one can see exactly how beneficial it is, than to have a spot here
and there over 80 or 100 acres. Some reckon that if only a bunch
here and there is started in n meadow the seed will gradually be
scattered by the sAveep rake in haying and will cover the entire
meadow. It will do so if the clover is allowed to get fairly ripe
before the haying is done, but it will take years. The farmer might
have been cutting good clover crops from it much sooner if a smaller
area had been given the proper quantity of seed and a field kept on
cultivated ground to furnish the seed necessary for a gradual exten-
sion of his meadow. A field of pure clover on cultivated land is of
great service for this purpose, as that produced in the meadows is
so mixed with grass leaves that it is difficult to thrash. If the
farmer has some source of seed on his own farm he will ordinarily
use a larger quantity than if forced to purchase it.

METHOD OF SEEDING.

Many scatter clover seed on the surface of the ground and count on
the rains covering it. ^Yhen soAvn with oats on cultivated ground
the soil should be plowed and thoroughly prepared with disk and
harrow before seeding. Then the cloA'er can be seeded at the same
lime as the oats and harrowed in Avith a drag harrow if no drill is
available, or the oats can be disked or drilled in first and then the
clover seed scattered on and harroAved in lightly. On these light
.soils it is always better to coA^er the seed in some way.

"Wliere cloAer is soAvn Avithout a grain crop, land that was in corn
the previous year is preferable, because it is firm and solid. If the
corn was cut for fodder, it only remains to sow the seed broadcast
and harroAv or drill it in the folloAving spring. The field should be
one Avliicli wn- Icc-pt free from Aveeds the preceding year, otherAvise
the vouuiT clover plants are likelv to be choked out.

Most of this paper has been Avritten with the present equipment ot
the sand-hill farmer in mind. As soon as possible CA'ery farmer
should supply himself Avith a drill AA'hich will sow cloA^er and alfalfa
seed. A disk drill having a press attachment Avhich is removable Avill
pay for itself in one season in the saving of seed if any considerable
area of land is seeded. The press Avheels are very essential on culti-
vated ground, since it is ahvays loose and needs to be compacted after
the seed is sown. AMien seeding clover on meadoAvland these Avheels
can l)e remoA^ed and the seed left in the little furroAvs made by the
disks. Succeeding rains Avill pack the soil sufficiently to insure an

[Cir. 80]

12 FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

even germination, and the slight loosening of the turf Avill give the
young clover plants a better chance.

Where this method of seeding has been followed the meadow takes
on the appearance of a clover field. (Fig. 5.) The resultant stand
is so certain when clover is seeded on meadowland with a disk drill
that a few trials would convince the most skeptical tliat wonderfid
possibilities exist in the improvement of a native moist meadow by
seeding it to red clover.

RESEEDING CLOVER FIELDS.

Clover seeded on cultivated fields and regularly harvested for seed
will, of course, need reseeding every other year. l)ut the clover stand

Fk;. .1. - iK'id shiiwiiiu (oimiKiii red ilii\ci' scL-drd with a disk drill in tlic native meadow

};rass.

in native meadows can be preserved indefinitely without putting on
any additional seed if handled properly.

A remarkable point noticeable in clover production in this region
is that the first cutting of clover can be depended upon to produce
seed, usually a full crop. In the East the first cutting very seldom
produces seed. The presence of seed in the first cutting is of immense
advantage to the man Avho has it in his meadows, as it comes on early
in the spring, and by the time the native grass is ready to cut much
of the clover has matured seed. During the haying operation a gi-eat
deal of this seed is shattered out by the rakes, and thus the ground is
reseeded without any additional trouble, and a good crop of new
clover is assured each succeeding year. The second cutting comes on
more uniformly and can be cut when it is in better condition for hay.

[Cir. 80]

FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA. 13

Alsike is handled in very much the same way and seeds as freely as
the red clover. In the meadows, however, it of course is not so
important that the alsike mature seed, since it is a perennial and does
not need to be reseeded often.

CLOVER SEKD PRODUCTION.

Since clover seeds so freely in this region, an exceedingly profit-
able system of farming is opened up to the sand-hill settler who owns
a tract of moist meadowland. There is always a ready market for
prime red or alsike clover seed at from $4 to $0 a bushel, and there
seems little doubt that with proper treatment a good field of clover
should return in this region 4 bushels per acre. Yields much ex-
ceeding this have been reported. The seed is not bulky, and the
farmer could therefore afford to haul it a considerable distance to a
shipping point. If properly developed, this region should become
one of die principal sections of the United States for producing
clover seed.

USE OF REDTOP AND TIMOTHY IN HAY FLATS.

Both redtop and timothy Avill endure considerable moisture and
thrive well when seeded on the hay flats. Timothy is no doubt a
considerable improvement over the native grasses, and tests shoAV
that a more extensive use of it is justifiable. When one seeds redtop
on his meadowland, however, it scatters quickly over adjoining
territory, and in a few years the meadow has the appearance of a
field of redtop. This is due to some extent to the fact that the redtop
comes on early and produces seed before the regular haying season
of the native grasses has arrived. Thus, like the clover, it is spread
broadcast over the entire meadow.

Redtop is not much of an improvement in quality over the native

grass for hay, although if cut early, before it is too nearly mature,

it makes first-class hay. It lacks the vitalizing, strength-giving

quality of the clover, however, and should be used only on land too

wet for either alsike or red clover, and there are few places too wet

for alsike clover. Most farmers regret having redtop on their

farms.

WEED PESTS IN MEADOWS.

Until recently the hay meadows of this region have been remark-
ably free from weeds. Sedges and rushes occupy much of the very
wet land, but the presence of these in the hay is not considered
sufficient cause for its refusal ; in fact, a considerable percentage of
the hay from some points is made up of these two plants.

Thei-e has appeared, however, the squirrel-tail grass {Ilordcan
juhatxiu), which has proved such a nuisance in the hay meadows of

[Cir. 80]

14 FORAGE CROPS FOE THE SAND-HILL. SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

Wyoming- Montana, and other Western States. It has spread rapidly,
and unless radical measures are taken to check it there will soon
be little first-class hay shipped from tliis region. The farmers and
stockmen should understand that its presence in hay not only means
the refusal of the hay by buyers, but also makes it dangerous to feed
at home. The lodging of numerous beards, or awns, in the animal's
mouth makes it unable to eat. Much good can be accomplished by
cutting this grass otf before it produces seed. It is considered an
annual, and although some of the roots may live over winter, a few
years of conscientious clii^ping will do much to rid the meadows of
this dangerous pest. The time to act is now, before it secures too ex-
tensive a foothold. The farmer in a case of this kind is too apt to
plead lack of time, but the man who desires to succeed will find time
for such Avork and do it at the riglit time.

SWEET CLOVER.

The value of sweet clover {MeUlotun aiha), a much maligned plant,
for forage and soil improvement in the sand hills is emphasized by
the results of tests and also by finding it in use and giving complete
satisfaction in several localities. Not onl}^ do stock eat it readily
when accustomed to it, but it grows freelv and inoculates naturally
in situations where no other cultivated legmne yet found, unless it be
vetch, will thrive. As a means of preparing a field for the seeding of
alfalfa it has no equal. The bacteria that produce nodules on the
roots of sweet clover are effective in producing inoculation on alfalfa,
which ordinarily is slow to become inoculated in the poorer sandy
soils. Fields which have grown sweet clover for two years will
usually be abundantly supplied with the needed bacteria. A much
wider use of this plant as a forage crop is therefore advised.

FEEDING VALUE,

Tests in feeding sweet clover to sheep were conducted at the
Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station,^ and in both quality of
meat and amount of gain it proved to be nearly equal to alfalfa and
much superior to native hay. Even though a poor grade of sweet
clover hay was used in the test, " the lambs exhibited a steady appetite
for it."

Numerous farmers report it as of equal value to alfalfa in feeding
dair}^ cows, which means that it is as good as the best. For pasture
it is available for cattle, horses, and hogs while the plants are small
and not bitter, but live stock usually refuse to eat it after it becomes
more mature and attains its characteristic bitter taste. Animals
unused to sweet clover are apt to refuse even to taste it, probably on
account of the odor, but once they are induced to eat a small quan-

> lUilletins 78 and 70, Wyoming AgriciiUural Experiment Station.
[Cir. 80]

FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA. 15

tity there is no further trouble. They seem to relish it afterwards
and will select it in preference to native and even tame grass hay.

SEEDING.

Although numerous tests have been conducted with sweet clover,
there has not been sufficient experience with it as yet to warrant defi-
nite reconnnendations in regard to the proper time for seeding. So
far the best results have been ol)tained by sowing it early in the
spring on a well-prepared seed bed, which should be firmed as in the
case of clover and alfalfa. In other sections, seeding it in grain,
either oats, barley, or spring wheat, has been successful and perhaps
could be followed out in this region wherever the moisture is fairly
abundant. Usually it is simply sown broadcast on the field after
the grain has been drilled in, and it is then allowed to be covered by
the weather. On sandy land, however, it is preferable to give the
soil a light harrowing after sowing the sweet clover so that the seed
will be covered. On the drier soils it is best to seed it without a

grain crop.

Most sweet clover seed germinates very poorly ; hence it is advisable
to sow 25 pounds per acre. This low^ germination is not caused en-
tirely by poor seed, but also by the large quantity of " hard seed "
usually present in conmiercial sweet clover seed. In some cases the
proportion of hard seed has run as high as 90 per cent, and this
means that a large part of the quantity sown Avill lie dormant in the
soil and germinate the following year.

A tabulation of the results obtained by the Seed Laboratory of the
Bureau of Plant Industry in germination tests of sweet clover seed
was made in order to determine whether the source of the seed has
any elfect on the germination or on the percentage of the hard seed
it contains. This tabulation showed that in 22 samples of seed
from the southern United States the average germination was 14.3
per cent and the average percentage of hard seed, 00.13. In 22
samples of seed from the northern United States, the average
germination was 3G.G per cent and the average percentage of hard
seed was 43.22. In the 28 samples of imported seed the average
germination was 5G.48 per cent and the average percentage of hard
seed, 12.33. This would seem to indicate that the imported sweet
clover seed is the most reliable, and that seed from the southern
United States is likely to contain more hard seed and germinate less
than that from any other section. These results cwifirm the observa-
tions Avhich have been made on field tests of these samples.

TIME TO CUT FOR HAY,

Sweet clover should l)e cut for hay early, before its stems have be-
come large and woody. The proper time to cut seems to be just as

[Cir. 80]

te

16 FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

the blossom buds are forming on the ends of the shoots. This will
give about the maximum growth of leaf and stem. There wall be
at this time a large percentage of water in the green matter and
considerable time will be necessary to cure it properly, but the hay
AAhen cured will be more palatable than if it had been allowed to
reach full bloom.

TREATMENT OF SWEET CLOVER FIELDS.

If a good, strong germination of the seed is obtained early in May,
sufficient growth should be made by August 1 to give a cutting of
hay. The following year the growth will start very early and an-
other good cutting can usually be secured between June 1 and 15.
The second growth should then be allowed to go to seed, if it is de-
sired to continue sweet clover on the field. There is usually no neces-
sity of harrowing or disking the field after it has seeded, but such
treatment would probably assist in getting an even germination.

"VMiere the soil is poor the plowing under of a crop of sweet clover
greatly benefits it ; and even where the clover is cut for hay the decay
of the roots, which in a good growth has been estimated at 20 tons
green weight per acre, will add large quantities of humus to the soil.

ALFALFA.
DirnCULTY OF CULTIVATION.

The crop which will eventually be of the most importance in both
the wet and dry valley regions is undoubtedly alfalfa, and it is hoped
that a more consistent effort to establish it will follow the publica-
tion of this circular. A great deal of it has already been sown
throughout this territory and many discouragements encountered.
Most of these have arisen from a lack of understanding regarding
the requirements of this crop.

In the wet-valley region much of the alfalfa Avas sown where the
Avater was near the surface, and during a wet time the crop was
drowned out. In other cases, both in the wet and the dry valley
regions, fields were sown with insufficient preparation of the ground.
They lacked inoculation and on account of the poor character of
the soil failed to secure it, and so, after making an indifferent growth
for a number of years, the alfalfa was crowded out by weeds and
grasses. In nearly all such fields a few plants became inoculated and
are still fighting with the grasses, ever-present evidence of the hard}'-
character and adaptability of the alfalfa plant.

Successful fields of alfalfa are to be found on sandy soils at Whit-
man, Hyannis, Seneca, Halsey, Anselmo, Chambers, Atkinson,

[Cir. 80]

FOBAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-KIT.L SECTION OF NEBRASKA. 17

Stuart, Bassett, and xVinsworth. (Fig. G.) This wide distribution
of successful fields gr()win<,^ under nearly every condition of moisture
and in Avidely varying situations is snfficient evidence that alfalfa
can and will be grown in practically every part of this region.
There are sure to be numerous failures in seeding alfalfa on account
of the uncertainty of the climate, and it is advised that discretion be
used in limiting expenditures on the first trials. Success will l)c
more general as the people become better acquainted with the ci-op
and as hardier strains, suited to this locality, are developed.

Fii;. C. — AlfaU'a licld iifar Alkinsim, Xebr.

SEED STRAINS ADAPTED TO SAND-HILL CONDITIONS.
NATIVE DKY-r.AND STRAINS.

Seed of native dry-land strains of alfalfa is secured from nonirri-
gated fields in the semiarid sections of the West. It is usually ordi-
nary alfalfa which has been grown for years under dry-land con-
ditions. In this way the drought-resistant plants alone have sur-
vived, and such seed is preferable if it can be obtained.^

TURKESTAN ALFALFA.

Turkestan alfalfa was secured originally from Turkestan and has
l>een found, as a- rule, more drought resistant than the ordinarv
alfalfa. It is not recommended, however, under irrigation, or in
.sections with sufHcient rainfall for full crops of ordinarv alfalfa.
In the sand-hill region ordinary alfalfa usually gives a better yield. -

1 Westgate, J. M. Alfalfa. Farmers' Bnllelin :V-'.<). V. S. Oopl. <>f Ajrriciilturc, 1!)0S, p. .",S.
- Wcstgate, J. JI. Op. cit., p. 37.
[Cir. SO]

18 FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

SAND LUCERN.

Sand lucern is a liardv, drought-resistant strain which originated
from a cross between ordinary alfalfa and the yellow-flowered
species, Med'icago falcata. It -is adapted to a wider range of soil
types than ordinary alfalfa and is proving equal or superior to many
of the strains now being grown for drought and cold resistance.^

GRIMM ALFALFA.

Grinnn alfalfa - is a local strain developi'd in Minnesota, which
on account of its superior hardiness is well adapted to localities where
trjung conditions are to be met.^

LOCATING THE FIELD.

The best soil obtainable should be chosen for the alfalfa field.
Excej^t in the wet-A-alley region, the best location will invariably be
in the bottom of the valley, where the soil contains the most humus
and the moisture supply is the most constant. In the wet valleys
the prospective alfalfa field should be located where the water table
will be at least 4 feet under the surface of the ground. There have
been successful fields where the distance to water was less in wet
seasons, but the chances are very much against such a field. A well-
drained piece of land with the water 8 to 12 feet beneath the surface
is best. Too much water is as ruinous to alfalfa as too little.

TIME OF SEEDING.

Numerous tests of alfalfa have been conducted in this region. The
results of these tests demonstrate quite thoroughly that the best time
for seedino- is about the middle of June. There are several reasons
for this: (1) The winds, which are likely to be quite frequent and
rather destructive through March, April, and the early part of ]May,
usually cease by the first of June. (2) It gives the weed seeds which
may have remained in the ground from the year before a chance to
germinate and be destroyed by cultivation before the alfalfa is sown.
(3) The ground is warm, the rains are more abundant at this time,
and the alfalfa has time to make a good growth before frost, so that
it can withstand the winter. With all these points of advantage,
however, judgment will have to be exercised in seeding, as this date
might happen to be just the wrong time to seed. If no rains have
fallen for some time and the surface soil is dry to a depth of 3 or 4
inches, it is best to retain the seed until it does rain or, in case the

1 Westgate, J. M. Varii'gated Alfalfa. lUilletin 100. lUn-eaii of Plant Industry. I'. 8.
Dept. of At'i-icultiuv, 1910.

= I'.rand, Charles J. Grimm Alfalfa and Its I'tilization in Iho Xortlnvosl. lUilldin I'OH.
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculturo. P.iU.

3 Brand, C. J., and Waldron, L. R. Cold Resistance of Alfalfa and Some Factors Influ-
encing It. Bulletin IS."). Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1910.

[Cir. 80]

FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA. 19

drouijht continuos until after the middle of July, to carry the seed
over until the following year. It avails little to put the seed in the
irround at mw time of the yenr when conditions are not favorable
for its germination and continued growth.

Should the spring come on early and conditions be such at the
middle of May as usually obtain at the middle of June, then it is
Avell to sow the seed at that time, securing a stronger root S3'stem and
larger top growth for protection during the winter.

RATE OF SEEDING.

The mortality among the young plants on sandy soil is very high,
owing to the fact that the surface of the soil becomes extremelv hot
and many i)lants are wilted and burned off before the third leaf is
formed. Such wholesale destruction of the young seedlings means
that an oversupply of seed must be used. From 9 to 12 pounds of
good seed should be ample, but on account of the conditions just
mentioned it is usually best to sow K) to 20 pounds per acre. If
conditions are favorable and too thick a stand is secured, it can be
thinned out much easier than a poor stand can be patched up. If
the ground is too fully occupied by tlie young plants, a good harrow-
ing or a light disking when the plants are only 3 or 4 inches high will
not only reduce the number of plants but will leave the surface of the
soil in good condition to retain the moisture.

PREPARATION OF SEED BED.

Wherever possible, gTound that has been cropped to corn or
potatoes the preceding year should be used for alfalfa. Such ground
is best on account of its freedom from weeds and the firm seed bed it
affords the alfalfa. The addition of manure to the soil several j'ears
in advance of its use for alfalfa is very beneficial, but manure should
never be plowed under at the time of seeding, as it cuts off capillary
action from beloAv and generally leaves the upper soil loose and very
dry, the rain water passing through rapidly but never returning
past the layer of manure to benefit the young plants.

If corn or potato ground is used, it should be disked in the spring
as soon as the first crop of weeds starts, then allowed to lie in a
rough condition until a second crop germinates, when this can be
killed by another disking or harrowing. It is advisable to kill out
the weeds thoroughly before seeding, and this ma}' require the third
disking. If the soil is inclined to 1)low after such treatment, it may
1)1' better to give but one working. It will be found, though, that if
the gi'ound is disked crosswise to the direction of the prevailing
winds the trouble from blowing will be less than if the ground were
allowed to lie smooth and hard.

[Cir. SO]

20 FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

AMiere grain stubble is used it can be plowed in the spring after the
first crop of weeds has started, left rough until the second crop germi-
nates, and the latter killed by harrowing with a drag harrow or b}'^
disking.

Ph^ery effort should be made to get the seed bed as solid as possible,
either by repeated harrowings, if the ground has been spring-plowed,
or b}^ the use of a roller. The frequency of the cultivations in the
spring, especially Avith the haiTow, must be determined to a great
extent by the judgment of the man on the ground. Experience will
show how much it is safe to work the soil with this implement. It
must be remembered, however, that the weeds must be removed from
the soil.

lNOCUL.\TION,

Throughout central and eastern Nebraska no trouble is experienced
in getting a field of alfalfa inoculated. In the sand-hill country, how-
ever, many fields were noted Avhich seemed to lack this very essential
aid to growth. Numerous cases of winter injury ,would have been
avoided if the field had been inoculated promptly and the growth
during the late summer and fall had been more vigorous.

Lack of inoculation is shown by weak, spindling plants of a yel-
lowish-green color in the field. The addition of barnvard manure
or vegetable matter of any kind always assists greatly in procuring
inoculation. It is well, however, to take other precautions besides
the addition of manure. Ordinary sweet clover, which is very plenti-
ful farther east in the State, and is found growing in many localities
throughout the sand hills, is inoculated with bacteria usually under-
stood to be the same as those which produce nodules on the roots of
alfalfa. It is known that if a crop of sweet clover is grown on the
soil prior to the seeding of alfalfa, the ground Avill be thoroughly
inoculated. Sweet clover is more adaptable to different soil and
climatic conditions than alfalfa and not only supplies the ground
with bacteria but also adds a large quantity of vegetable matter
in the shape of roots which decay very promptly when the plant dies.
It would therefore be advisable to use sweet clover as an aid to the
establishment of alfalfa fields throughout the sand hills.

AMien beginning a field on ground which has not been inoculated
by the method just described, it is highly important and usually
very profitable to secure soil from an old alfalfa field which is
already inoculated, or from a patch of sweet clover, and scatter this
soil at the rate of 500 pounds per acre over the ground which is to be
sown to alfalfa.

The soil is best applied through a fertilizer drill, but as very few
farmers in the sand hills possess a drill of this kind the application
must trenerallv be made bv broadcasting the soil with the hands and

[Cir. SOI

FORAGE CKOPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA. 21

then covering it immediately Avith a disk or ordinary spike-toothed
liarrow, as bright ^unlioht is very quickly fatal to the bacteria.

When this inoculated soil can not be obtained near at hand, it is
best to go to the trouble of shipping it even from considerable dis-
tances ralher than sow the seed without inoculation. In this event
•200 or 300 pounds of the inoculated soil may be mixed with an eciual
(juantity of loose soil or sand in order to facilitate the scattering of
it evenly over the field.

3rETII0I> OF SEEDING.

Before seeding, it is always profitable to spend sufficient time and
money on the preparation of the gi-ound to get it in perfect condition.
Alfalfa seed is quite expensive, and a poor stand of alfalfa means
that weeds will enter the field in the vacant spaces and in time ruin
the field entirely.

AVhen the ground has been thoroughly prepared, as previously in-
dicated, the best results should come from seeding with a press drill,
but extreme care must be taken to prevent the seed from being cov-
ered too deeply, as the press wheels sink in the loose soil to a consid-
erable depth and the wind later fills these furrows. One can also
broadcast the seed, but the germination is never as good when the
seed is broadcasted and harrowed in as when it is put in the ground
with a press drill. This arises largely from the fact that the soil is
pressed doAvn on the seed in the drill track and capillary action sup-
plies the germinating seed with moisture, even though no rain falls
for some time after the seed is sown.

In the case of broadcasted seed where it lies in the loose soil, the
>eed is very apt to sutler from lack of moisture directly after it has
germinated. It is better to seed half the required quantity of seed
one way and then cross-seed with the remaining half than to sow it all
one way. as a more even stand is usually secured in this manner.

If the press drill is not available one can obtain about the same con-
dition of soil by rolling the ground after it is seeded and then follow-
ing the roller with a light harrowing. If the soil is unusually sandy
and liable to blow l)adly, it is necessary to do something to keep the
moving sand from cutting the young plants oif as they appear above
the surface of the ground. Some growers accomplish this by using a
birhl dressino; of barnvard manure. If such manure is free from
weed seed it will not only keep the sand from blowing badly, but wdl
>u[)[)ly the ground with additional plant food.

The following is one of the best ways noted in which to hold the
sand and give the alfalfa a chance to start : After the alfalfa has been
seeded a verv lidit dressini? of native hav taken from old stack bot-
toms is scattered over the field. U'his dressing of hay should be quite
thin and evenly distributed. The next process is to go on the field

[Cir. 80]

22 FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA.

with a disk set very nearly straight and weighted, so that while it
does not tear up the ground it Avill cut the hay into the soil and leave
it standing over the field somewhat like stubble. (Fig. 7.) Splendid
results haA^e followed this method of seeding.

SUBSEQUENT TREATMENT.

If it should ever seem advisable to make a cutting the first season,
care should be taken to set the cutter bar of the mower hisfh. If cut
low, the plants are slow to recover from the shock of cutting, and
sufTicient growth is not left on the field to protect the roots of the
alfalfa through the winter. Present data indicate that clipping is
warranted only as a protection against weeds, and that the common

■iSSS.

-.I..;. T?

- ~ =;r^'~''«

-S.J!=S^>.*»

,jm. ^^-^''^s

•"' " ^^

Fig. 7. — Field showinji the method used for preventing tlie movement of sand by the

use of old hay from stack bottoms.

practice of clipjDing new fields of alfalfa retards rather than strength-
ens the root growth.

"Wlien the stand of alfalfa is weedy it has been found advisable to
disk the field each spring, and in some cases, where the moisture sup-
ply is adequate, after each cutting. The disk should be followed by
a drag harrow^ to level off the soil for the moAver. Even in fields
which are not weedy it is best to disk each spring unless the ground
is extremely dry, as it loosens up the surface soil and induces a
heavier growth.

Ordinarily it is safe to cut three crops of hay each year, especially
if the cutting is done at the proper season, when about one-tenth of
the plants are in bloom. If the second crop is allowed to go to seed,
the third growth had better be pastured back, since the cutting would

[Cir. SO]

FORAGE CROPS FOR THE SAND-HILL SECTION OF NEBRASKA. 23

necessarily be late, and in that case the field would be left without
winter i)i'otecti<»ii. wliu h often means disaster.

SUMMARY.

The sand-hill section of Nebraska conij)rises nearly 20.000 scjuare
miles, or about one-fourth the total area of the State.

Stock raising is, and doubtless will continue to be, the main in-
dustry of this section.

Native hay is at present the chief dependence of the stockmen for
their winter feed.

No tame grass has been found which appears more valuable on the
loose, sandy ridges than the native vegetation.

Crops which require clean cultivation should be discontinued as
far as possible.

The most dependable source of livelihood for the small landowner
is dairying.

The clovers are well suited to the wet-valley region, and this divi-
sion of the sand hills should become in time one of the important
clover-i)roducing sections of the United States.

The improvement of the native, moist meadowlands by the in-
troduction of timothy is advised, but the use of redtop for this pur-
pose should be discouraged.

The growing of sweet clover as a forage crop and in preparing land
for alfalfa is recommended.

The mo»t dangerous weed of the wet-valley region is the squirrel-
tail grass {Ilordewm juhatum), now quite common.

Alfalfa promises to become the most valuable cultivated crop of
the sand hills.

The use of a hardy strain, good judgment in locating the field,
inoculation of the soil, and careful attention to the details of seeding
are necessary for success witli alfalfa.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

AVASiiixfiTox, D. C, Jioie 27., 1011.

[Clr. 80].

o

Issued June 5, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 81.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE SHRINKAGE OF CORN IN STORAGE.

LIBRARY
HBW YORK
BY BOTANICAL

QARDEN.

J. W. T. DUVEL,

Crop Technologist in Charge of Grain Standardization Investigations,

AND

LAUREL DUVAL,
Assistant in Charge of the Baltimore Grain Standardization Laboratory.

93318' — Cir. 81 — 11 Washington : government printing office : I9ii

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, Willlvm A. Taylor,
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief- Clerk, 3 AMES E. Jones.

[Cir. 81]
2

». p. I.— 674.

THE SHRINKAGE OF CORN IN STORAGE.

INTRODUCTION.

As the question of the natural shrinkage of shelled corn while in
storage and in transit is of considerable importance to those engaged
in the handling of grain, a series of special investigations was begun
at Baltimore, Md., in order to determine the amount of shrinkage
or loss in weight occurring in shelled corn containmg various per-
centages of moisture while in storage in elevators or during transit
in cars.

The experiment described in this circular, the first of the series
on shrinkage, was made with 500 bushels of shelled corn stored on a
30,000-pound scale and was carried on in cooperation with the
Baltimore & Oliio Railroad Co. and the Baltimore Chamber of
Commerce.

EXPERIMENT WITH CORN STORED ON A SCALE IN A GRAIN

ELEVATOR.

On January 5, 1910, 500 bushels (28,000 pounds) of shelled com
having an average moisture content of 18.8 per cent were placed in
the wooden hopper of a 30,000-pound scale in Elevator B of the
Baltimore & Oliio Ilailroad Co. at Locust Point (Baltimore), Md.
The scale was tested prior to the beginning of the experiment, and
after being filled with grain the hopper of the scale was covered
with cloth to prevent an excessive quantity of dust from setthng
on the com, and at the same time to pernyt a fairly free circulation
of air over the top of the grain.

The corn used in this test was taken from the regular car receipts
and was left in the hopper of the scale without handling from January
5 until May 14, a period of 129 days. It was then run out of the
hopper and elevated three times to the same scale, the weight of
the grain being taken after each elevation. After the tliird eleva-
tion the corn was held on the scale for an additional period of 18
days, or until June 1, at wliich time the experiment was terminated,
making a total storage period of 147 days.

Figure 1 is a sectional view through the middle of the hopper
of the scale, showing the position of the four electrical-resistance
themiometers which were placed in the corn at the top of the first,
second, fourth, and fifth 100-bushel drafts, respectively, in order
that the temperature of the corn could be ascertained at any time
throughout the course of the experiment.

[Cir. 81] 3

SHRINKAGE OF CORN IN STORAGE.

The average condition and quality of the 500 bushels of corn at the
beginning of the experiment, as represented by the results of the
analyses of samples taken from the various drafts at the time the
hopper of the scale was being filled, are shown in Table I.

Table I. — Factors indicating the condition and quality of the corn tested when placed on

the scale on January 5, 1910.

Location of sample on scale.

First 100 bushels..
Second 100 bushels
Third 100 bushels.
Fourth 100 bushels
Fifth 100 bushels..

Average

Moisture

Weight

Sonnd

content.

bushel.

corn.

Per cent.

Pouvdi.

Per cent.

18.7

54.8

98.2

18.8

54.8

97.0

19.0

54.5

96.2

18.5

54.8

97.3

19.0

54.5

96.1

18.8

54.7

97.1

Germi-
nation of
whole
kernels.

Per cent.
87.5
91.0
87.5
91.5
90.5

89.6

■ ^

As will be seen in Table I, the moisture content of the com when
placed on the scale

on January 5 varied l^ /o'-^'

from 18.5 per cent in
the fourth draft to 19
per cent in the third
and fifth drafts, with

T

an

average

----)ir

0)

.1

THEHMOMfTSfi'S'

/OO aUSHE^LS'

THfRA^OA/fe-Tfrf? A/P3

-

T/^/f?0 /OO BUS^^L^

yS£r:o/vo \/oo sc/s/y£z.s

of 18.8
per cent for the entire
500 bushels. The
weight per bushel
was 54.5 pounds in
the third and fifth
drafts and 54.8
pounds in the first,
second, and fourth
drafts, the average
for the entire lot
being 54.7 pounds.
The average percent-
age of sound corn
was 97.1 percent and
the average percent-
age of germination
was 89.6 per cent.

SHRINKAGE IN THE WEIGHT OF THE STORED CORN.

Weighings and temperature records were made of the corn at
frequent intervals throughout the experiment, during which time
consideration was also given to the temperature and relative humidity

[Cir. 81]

Fig. 1. — Diagram giving a sectional view through the center of the
wooden hopper of the scale, showing the position of the four electrical-
resistance thermometers in the stored corn.

SHRINKAGE OF CORN IN STORAGE. 5

of the atmosphere and to general weatlier conditions. The results of
these records and observations are shown diagrammatically in figures
2 and 3. Figure 2 shows the shrinkage in the weight of the corn, the
average temperature of the corn, the average of the daily mean air
temperatures for the periods between weighings, the mean daily
relative humidity of the atmosphere, and the weather record from
Januar}' 5 to April 21, after which time the rate of deterioration in tlie
corn was such that the relative humidity of the atmosphere and the
general weather conditions exerted no apparent influence on the
amount of shrinkage. Figure 3 shows only the shrinkage in the
weight of the corn, the average temperature of the corn as indicated by
the four electrical-resistance thermometers at the time the weighings
were made, and the average of the daily mean air temperatures for
the ])eriods between the dates of the weighings from the beginning of
the experiment, January 5, until June 1, at which time the test was
terminated.

Immediately after the corn was placed in the hopper of the scale
the average temperature of the corn, as indicated by the four electrical-
resistance thermometers, the positions of which are shown in figure 1 ,
was 20° F., the same as the temperature of the air. From figures 2
and 3 it will be seen that the shrinkage in weight from January 5 to
February 24, 50 days, was 30 pounds, or slightly more than one-tenth
of 1 per cent. The temperature of the corn at this time, as shown by
the average of the readings of the four thermometers, was 32.5° F.
an increase of 12.5 degrees over the average temperature of the corn
when it was placed on the scale. The average of the daily mean air
temperatures for one week prior to February 24 was 33° F., or 13
degrees above the temperature of the air at the beginning of the
experiment. From February 24 to April 8, 43 days, the loss in weight
amounted to an additional 30 pounds, making a shrinkage of 60
pounds, or approximately two-tenths of 1 per cent, for the first 93
days of the test. The increase in the average temperature of the corn
during this period of 93 days from the beginning of the test was
26.3 degrees.

On April 21 the average temperature of the corn was 69.5° F., an
increase of 23.2 degrees for the 13 days from April 8 to April 21, dur-
ing which period there was a further loss in weight of 47.5 pounds^
or neaily two-tenths of 1 per cent, and for the whole period, January
5 to April 21, 106 days, the shrinkage amounted to 107.5 pounds, or
approximately four-tenths of 1 per cent. The highest temperature
at any point in the corn at tliis time was 87° F., as was shown by
thermometers Nos. 3 and 4 in the ui)per part of the grain, while
thermometers Nos. 1 and 2 showed a temperature of only 51° and
53° F., res{)ectively. At this time the corn in the scale showed the
fii-«t distinct signs of going out of condition, and this deterioration

[Cir. 81]

6

SHRINKAGE OF CORN IN STORAGE.

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LCir. 81]

SHRINKAGE OF CORN IN STORAGE, 7

was accompanied by a rapid rise in the temperature of the corn and
a very marked increase in the rate of shrinkage, as iUustratcd in
figure 3.

During the eight days from April 21 until April 29 the loss in
weight was five-tenths of 1 per cent, or one-tenth of 1 per cent more
than the loss from January 5 to April 21, the period of 106 days in
which the corn remained in good condition. The increase in the
average temperature of the corn from April 21 to April 29 was from
69.5° F. to 108° F., or 38.5° degrees. The maximum temperature
recorded on April 29 was 130° F. at the top of the fourth 100 bushels,
as compared with a maximum of 87° F. on April 21.

Duiing the 15 days immediately following, April 29 to May 14, the
shrinl<;age amounted to shghtly more than 2 per cent. The average
temperature of the corn on May 14 was 111.3° F. The maximum
temperature of the corn on May 14 was 119° F. around thermometer
No. 3, as compared with, a maximum of 133° F. two days previous.
The decrease in the temperature of the corn at tliis time was due to
a reduction in the biochemical changes and to the decreased activities
of the organisms responsible for the deterioration, influenced in a
measure, perhaps, by the sudden drop in the air temperature.

The total shrinkage in the corn from January 5 to May 14 was 815
pounds, or approximately 3 per cent. The maximum average tem-
perature of the corn for any given date, as shown by the four electrical-
resistance thermometers, was 127° F. on May 5. The highest tempera-
ture recorded was 138° F. on May 2 around thermometer No. 3 at
the top of the fourth 100 bushels, as compared with an average
temperature of 20° F. at the beginning of the test.

On May 14 the corn, after it had remained in the hopper of the
scale for 129 days without handlmg, was "run out" and elevated
three times to the same scale. On the first elevation the loss was
205 pounds, or approximately eight-tenths of 1 per cent; on the
second elevation the loss was 170 pounds, or approximately six-
tenths of 1 per cent; and on the third elevation the loss was 73
pounds, or approximately three-tenths of 1 per cent. The total loss
during the three elevations was therefore 448 pounds, or 1.6 per
cent, on the basis of the original 28,000 pounds, or 1.65 per cent on
the basis of the actual weight of corn in the hopper of the scale just
previous to "handling."

The average moisture content of the samples drawn from the com
immechately prior to the third elevation was 16.5 per cent, as com-
pared with an average moisture content of 18.8 j)er cent when the
corn was first placed in the hopper of the scale, while the percentage
of sound corn had decreased from 97.1 per cent to 7.6 per cent within
the same period of storage.

[Cir. 81]

8

SHRINKAGE OF CORN IN STORAGE.

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[Cir. 81]

SHKINKAGE OF CORN IN STOEAGE. 9

Wlien the corn was returned to the scale on May 14, after the third
elevation, the temperature of the corn was practically the same as
the temperature of the air at the time the corn was handled, which
was shghtly less than 55° F. The corn was then held on the scale
until June 1 , when the corn was again hot. At this time the experi-
ment terminated. During this final period of 18 days the additional
loss in weight amounted to 707 pounds, or 2.6 per cent.

On the basis of the original weight, after deductmg the weight of
the samples dra^\m for analyses, the total shrinkage during the whole
storage period of 147 days, not including the loss during the three
elevations, was 1,522 pounds, or approximately 5.6 per cent. The
total shrmkage, includuig the shrinkage of 448 pounds during the
three elevations, was 1,970 pounds, or sUghtly more than 7 per cent.
On June 1, at the termination of the experiment, the average mois-
ture content of the corn w^as 14.7 per cent, or 4.1 per cent less than
the same corn contained at the beginning of the test on January 5.
During the same period there was likewise a marked change in the
quaUty of the corn, showing that there had been a partial decompo-
sition of the reserve food products during the course of the test
resulting m a shrinkage in weight far in excess of the reduction in
the percentage of moisture. The weight per bushel of the corn had
decreased from 54.7 pounds to 50 pounds; the sound corn from 97.1
to 1.1 per cent, and the kernels which were capable of germmation
from 89.6 to 1 per cent.

EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS ON THE SHRINKAGE OF

CORN.

It was found that the shruikage was not constant, but that during
certain periods there was a retardation in the rate of shrinkage or
even a temporary mcrease in weight due to the absorption of mois-
ture from the atmosphere. In this connection it must be borne in
mind that the hopper of the scale, being of wooden construction,
undoubtedly absorbed moisture from the atmosphere on damp and
rainy days the same as the corn.

Figure 2 shows that whenever there was an increase in weight
or a retardation in the shrinkage the relative humidity of the atmos-
phere was very high between w^eighings, and in most cases a heavy
rainfall occurred just before such weighings were made. The reverse,
however, is not true in all cases; that is, all periods of high relative
humidity do not show in the diagram a corresponding increase in
weight, because the weighings were made only at irregular intervals
while the relative humidity records are daily.

On January 21 there was an increase over the previous weigh-
mg, January 17, of 2.5 pounds. The relative humidity on Jan-
uary 17 was 81.5 per cent, and on January 21 it was 90.5 per

[Cir. 81]

10 SHRINKAGE OF CORN IN STORAGE.

cent. The average relative humidity during this period was 74.5
per cent. On March 2 there was an increase in weight of 12.5
pounds over the previous weighing, February 24. The average
relative humidity during this period was 81.4 per cent. On Feb-
ruary 28 and March 1 and 2 the relative humidity was 96, 97, and
99 per cent, respectively. On February 28 the precipitation
amounted to 0.71 of 1 inch, followed by 0.12 of 1 inch on March 1
and 0.03 of 1 inch on IMarcli 2. From this time on until March 22
the amount of precipitation was very small and the average relative
humidity was low. During this period the shrinkage was quite
rapid. On March 24 the relative humidity was 86 per cent, and
when the corn was weighed on March 25 there was an increase of
5 pounds over the previous weighing on March 22. The weighing
made on April 5 showed a gain in weight of 2.5 pounds as compared
with the weight on April 1. Here again the relative humidity was
high, being 87.5 per cent on April 4 and 81 per cent on April 5.
There was also 0.24 of 1 inch of rainfall during this period. After
April 5 the relative humidity was comparatively low until April 17,
when it reached 95 per cent, and on April 21 the relative humidity
was 90.5 per cent. At this time the corn showed signs of heating
and therefore the influence of the relative humidity and general
atmospheric conditions was lost in the increased amount of shrinkage
which accompanied the comparatively rapid deterioration of the
corn.

SUMMARY.

(1) The shrinkage test described in this circular was made with
500 bushels of shelled corn stored in the hopper of a scale in a grain
elevator, and extended over a period of 147 days, January 5 to June
1, 1910, during which time the corn was not "handled" except on
May 14.

(2) At the beginning of the test the average moisture content
of the corn was 18.8 per cent. The average temperature of the corn
and the temperature of the air was 20° F.

(3) The shrinkage in weight from January 5 to April 21, while
the corn remained in good condition, was approximately four-
tenths of 1 per cent.

(4) The shrinkage in weight from April 21 to May 14 was approxi-
mately 2.6 per cent, during which time the corn went "out of con-
dition," becoming sour and hot, with a maximum temperature of
138° F. on May 2.

(5) The shrinkage during the three elevations on May 14 was
448 pounds, or 1.65 per cent, on the basis of the actual weight of
corn in the hopper of the scale just previous to "handling."

[Cir. 81]

SHRINKAGE OF CORN IN STORAGE. H

(G) The slirinkaf>:e during ytoraj^e from May 14 to June 1, after
the corn was cooled to 55° F. by handling, was 2.6 per cent.

(7) The total shrinkage during the test was 1,970 pounds, or
slightly more than 7 per cent, while the natural shrinkage exclusive
of the loss (luring the three elevations was 1,522 pounds, or approxi-
mately 5.6 per cent, calculated on the actual weight after making
deductions for samples drawn for analyses.

(8) The rate of shrinkage while the corn remained in good condi-
tion was largely influenced by the weather conditions and by the
relative humidity and temperature of the atmosphere.

Approved:

James Wilson, •

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, April 24, WIU

[Cir. 81]

o

NOTE THE FIVE KINDS OF PAPER UPON WHICH THIS CIRCULAR IS PRINTED.

Issued August 31, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 82.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING.

UBRARY
BY WF?W YORK

BOTANICAL
CHARLES J. BRAND, ^ARJ>FN,

Physiologist in Charge of Paper-Plant Investigations,
Office of Agricultural Technology.

101981° Cir. 82 — 11 1 Washington : government printing office : 1911

[This circular is printed on paper made wholly or in part from crop wastes and by-
products from corn, Ijroom corn, rice, and cotton.]

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Taylor.
Editor, 3. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerkj James E. Jones.

SiS'The paper upon lolm-h this page is printed was made from cornslalks and
cotton hulls. See page 3.
[Cir. 82]
2

i;. i>. I. — osG.

CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING."

INTRODUCTION.

Continued advances in the prices of spruce and poplar wood and
the rapid diminution of visible supplies have drawn marked atten-
tion to the j)roblem of finding new sources of raw material for paper
making. Not only is the price rising with the dimini.shing supply,
but the consumption of both pulp and paper products is rapidly
increasing. The statistics of the Bureau of the Census indicate that
an increase of at least 5 per cent each year may be expected in the
quantity of wood used, although the increase from 1899 to 1904 was
more than 53 per cent— from 1.98G.310 to 3,043,459 cords. In 1909,
4,002,000 cords were used. While old uses of pulped fiber are being
extended and important new ones are being discovered, many promis-
ing methods of utilizing pulp and paper remain wholly unexploited.
These will claim large additional quantities of raw material in their
development.

The inadequacy of the supply of materials now in use to meet these
requirements is an accepted fact. Two sources of new material offer
themselves: The first, and, so far as the immediate future is con-
cerned, perhaps the more promising, is the large number of coniferous
and broad-leaved trees that hitherto for various reasons have not
been used. These are under investigation by the Forest Products

1 The (greater part of the paper here presented was published in the Yearbook of the
Department of Agriculture for 1910, pages 329 to 340. In order to secure a practical
test of some of the papers that have been produced under Mr. Brand's supervision in the
experiments of the Bureau ot Plant Industry, it is thought advisable to issue a circular
printed on papers made wholly or in part from crop wastes and by-products. This will
furnish a practical test of the durability of paper produced from crop plants.

Each sheet of four pages Is printed upon a different lot of paper, making a total of
five kinds of paper in the circular. A statement as to the kinds of material used and
the proportion cf each is appended. — Wm. A. T.\ylok, Actiny Chief of Bureau.

EXPLANATOKY STATEMENT.

The first or cover folio (pp. 1, 2, 19, and 20) is printed on paper made from shredded
cornstalks (80 per cent) and cotton-hull fiber (20 per cent). The raw materials were
cooked together in a stationary digester by the soda process. The pith colls of the
corn were partly removed liy passing the pulp once over a wet separator.

The second folio (pp. 3, 4, 17. and 18) was made from shredded broom-corn stalks
(100 per cent) treated by the soda process. The pith cells were partly removed; long
fiber cells from the flbrovascular bundles and from the outside layer of the stalks
predominate.

The third folio (pp. 5. 6, 1.5, and 16) contains rice-straw soda pulp (77 per cent) and
sulphite pulp from spruce (2:5 per cent). The rice straw was cooked alone, while the
bleached sulphite was added at the ideating engine.

The fourth folio (pp. 7, 8, 13, and 14) contains broom-corn soda pulp (50 per cent) and
soda pulp from poplar wood (50 per cent) cooked separately and mixed at the boating
engine. None of the pith was removed from the broom-corn pulp.

The fifth or middle folio (pp. 9, 10, 11, and 12) is made ivom comparatively pure,
long fiber pulp of cornstalks. Most of the pith cells were removed and no other fiber
was added. The variety of corn used in this case was Raid's Yellow Dent.
[Cir. 82]

3

4 CROP PLANTS FOE PAPER MAKING.

Laboratory of the Forest Service. The second possible source is
among phmts other than trees. These are being investigated by the
Bureau of Phmt Industry, assisted in the chemical phases of the work
by the Bureau of Chemistry. So many extravagant statements have
been current from time to time that it seems wise, in the interest of
conservatism, to saj^ that the investigators of the Bureau of Plant
Industry hope only to find a partial substitute for wood and that there
in no expectation of " throwing a life line " to the pulp and paper
industry wdiich will afford instant and permanent relief from the
persistently rising cost of wood.

ALL PAHTS OF PLANTS AND PLANT TISSUES ARE NOT OF EQUAL
VALUE IN PHODUCING PAPER FIBER.

While j)aper of some kind can be made from almost every plant,
there is wide diversity in the quality and quantity of fiber produced.
Plants, as is well known, are made up of complex tissues containing
various kinds of cells. Paper pulp is made by liberating the individ-
ual cells comj^rising these tissues. This is accomplished by mechani-
cal means in the case of certain trees, and by chemical resolution,
commonly called digesting, in the case of nearly all other plants. The
pulpy residue of chemical treatment is in large part cellulose. It is
this substance that furnishes the basis of all papers. Cotton staple is
an almost pure form of cellulose, and the onl}^ one occurring in so
free a condition : that is, so completelj^^ disassociated from other tissue.
Cellulose wherever it occurs is an unusually stable compound, and as
chemical treatment of plant materials progresses it is the last to be
attacked by acid or alkali solvents.

The quantity of cellulose-producing tissue varies gTeatly in differ-
ent 2)lants; hence, they are not of equal value for paper making.
Furthermore, there are differences in the kinds of cellulose produced
by different plants, and these kinds vary in value according to the
durability of the paper produced from them.

CROP MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR PRODUCING FIBER.
Outside of trees there are three classes of plant materials which
may be utilized in the production of paper pulp. These are: (1) The
wastes or by-products of cultivated crops, such as the stalks of corn,
broom com, and sorghum, the straws of rice, flax, and the common
grains, hemp waste, cotton stalks, cotton-hull fiber, and bagasse;
(2) certain plants that may possibly be cultivated with profit for
paper-making purposes, such as hemp, esparto, jute, E id alia japonic a ^
okra, and some of the well-known Japanese paper plants; (3) wild
plants, including certain grasses, rushes, sedges, canes, weeds, and
wild fiber-furnishing plants like the yuccas, sotols, and agaves.

X^The paper upon ivhich this page is printed was made from broom-corn
Mall-s, Jong fiber. See page 3.
[Cir. 82]

CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING. O

Crop plants to be profitably available for paper pulp must comply
with somewhat rigorous requirements: (1) They must exist in large
quantities; (2) they nnist be available throughout the year; (;^) they
nuist yield a relatively high percentage of cellulose; (4) the fiber
cells or cellulose must be of a highly resistant character and
must have length, strength, and good felting qualities; and (5)
the plant nmst be of such a nature that the cost of obtaining
the fiber Avill not be prohibitive. No one crop plant now known
satisfies these conditions completely, though it ha's not thus far
been ])racticable in the experimental work of the Department of
Agriculture to investigate all of them. Certain plants of repre-
sentative character have been selected in order that the results with
these might be applied as far as possible to other plants in the eligible
list. The work has been confined largely to the stalks of corn and
broom corn, rice and flax straw, and cotton-hull fiber used inci-
dentally with certain of the other materials. In connection with the
search for new materials, at least two present sources deserve much
fuller development, namely, old papers and rags. Only a very small
proportion of the available supply of these wastes is collected at
present.

PAST ATTEMPTS TO UTILIZE CROP MATERIALS.

The present efforts to devise means for profitably utilizing some
of the crop Avastes in paper making do not by any means represent
the first attempts in this direction. As long ago as the seventeenth
century a small paper mill at Eimini, in Italy, produced paper from
the husks of corn. Again, in the eighteenth century, there was
ereatlv renewed interest in cornstalks and some other materials, and
Schaelfer, in Germany, produced paper from the husks, leaves, and
stalks separately, and from the combined materials of the whole stalk.
He published a paper giving the results of his experiments and
showing sample pages of the papers he produced. Cobbett, in Eng-
land, early in the nineteenth century, had similar experiments made,
and printed the title page of his Treatise on Corn upon paper pro-
duced from this material. Since the beginning of the nineteenth
century a large number of experiments have been made wnth a view
to utilizing most of the crop wastes, and many patents have been
granted to experimenters covering processes and machines employed
in the various phases of the work. It should be added that with
the exception of straw, the use of which, in this country, is confined
almost wholly to the manufacture of straw and box board, w^rapping
paper, and certain sj^ecialties, the attempts to utilize crop materials
have I'esulted in failui'(>.

i< The iiaiicr upon icliich this page is printed icas niudr from riee straw and
spruce wood. See page 3.

[Cir. S2]

6 CEOP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING.

THE OUTLOOK FOB, UTILIZATION UNDER PRESENT-DAY

CONDITIONS.

About half a century ago the supply of rags became so low and the
price as a consequence so high that paper manufacturers were forced
to find new materials as a basis of tlie furtlier development of their
industry. In this extremity esj^arto grass and certain woods, notabl}''
spruce and poplar, were found to produce excellent paper fiber.
The enormous expansion in the use of paper since that time has now
brought us face to face with a dearth of suitable wood. The price
of spruce at the mill has risen from a few dollars a cord to $6 to $11,
and in some cases even to $12 a cord, according to location and cost of
delivery. Poplar, likewise, has risen from a comparatively low price
until now it is perhaps worth on an average $7.50 per cord, delivered.
Practically all the trees producing the highest class of materials have
been cut, so that the present harvest is from less desirable and more
scattered stands, which means reduced yields of fiber in raw mate-
rial and an increased cost in securing the wood. While the price of
wood has continually advanced as the supplies grew smaller, the
supply of crop by-products has gone on increasing with practically
no increase in price, and with but little likelihood of any considerable
increase in the future. In course of time this disparity will become
even more pronounced ; hence attempts at the utilization of waste
materials are now made under conditions far more favorable than
were similar efforts made as recently as 10 or 15 years ago. In
other words, the rising cost of materials is rapidly bringing us to a
time when the question of producing paper from crop wastes and
other plants may be considered from a new point of view.

METHODS USED IN OBTAINING PAPER STOCK FROM PLANTS.

AVith the exception of cotton, all raw vegetable fibers that enter
into the manufacture of paper pulp are obtained by the mechanical
or chemical separation of complex plant tissues. As a preliminary
to the discussion that folloAvs, a short description of the methods by
which paper fiber is secured from trees and otiier plants may not be
out of place.

The simplest method, that of mechanical grinding, is applicable
only to certain woods, which are ground into a pulp by means of
grindstones over wdiich a continuous stream of water flows. The
pulp secured in this way is the poorest of all, as it contains numerous
substances which rapidly deteriorate in contact with light and air.
This sort of pulp, known as mechanical wood pulp, mixed with a
fair proportion of higher grade fiber, is the chief constituent of news
and other cheap printing papers. It is also used largely in the

S^The paper upon which this page is printed icas .7)iade from rice straw and
spruce wood. See page 3.
[Cir. 82]

CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING. 7

manufacture of j^ressed-fiber utensils, such as -washtubs, trays, pails,
and many other products.

The second means of securing pulp from raw materials has a far
wider application than the mechanical process. It consists in sepa-
rating the tissue cells from one another through the action of chemi-
cals which attack the gums, resins, and other cementing substances
which hold the parts of the plant together. Two classes of chemicals
are used, namely, acids and alkalis. A good example of a pulp pro-
duced by the acid method is the well-known sulphite fiber produced
so largely from spruce, and in less measure from other coniferous
trees. In this case sulphurous acid is the solvent. The alkali method
of digestion is suitable for a wider range of materials than the acid
method. In this case the chemical solvent generally used is caustic
soda. Practically all experiments with the w^astes or by-products
of crop plants and with wild plants other than trees are conducted
by the soda process and a variation of it known as the sulphate
process. In commercial practice the greater part of the soda pulp of
commerce is produced from poplar and certain other broad-leaved
trees, and from esparto, a grass that grows wild in the circum-
Mediterranean region. Chemical pulp, produced either by the sul-
phite or soda process, and pulp from rags are the bases of nearly all
of the better grades of printing, writing, and wrapping papers.

REVIEW OF RECENT EXPERIMENTS.'

During the past 10 years many crop materials have been subjected
to pulping experiments by some of the more progressive paper
manYifacturers and by private individuals. In most cases a satisfac-
tory quality of paper has been made, but in the end nothing practical
has come of the work. The whole situation might be summarized
by the statement that it has been found possible to make paper out
of many crop wastes, but it has been found impossible to make money
out of more than one or two.

Congress, in making appropriations for the Department of Agri-
culture for 1908-9, provided the sum of $10,000 to be used in test-
ing " such plants as may require tests to ascertain if they be suitable
for paper making." One half of this fund was assigned to the
•Forest Service for studies of unused woods, the other half to the
Bureau of Plant Industry for the investigation of crop and wild

1 The writer is indebtfd to Alossrs. F. P. Veitch and J. L. Merrill, of the Bureau
of Chemistry, and to Mr. E. M. Munccy. of the Office of Agricultural Technology,
of this Bureau, for all chemical determinations ; to Dr. H. S. Bristol and Mr. Edwin
Sutermeister, of the Forest Service, for assistance in much of the earlier work, and
to the Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and Labor, for testing the papers
produced in the many commercial and semicommercial runs at the paper mill. The
Bureau of Animal Industry, through Dr. E. C. Schroeder and his assistant. Mr. W. E.
Cotton, aided the work by conducting a preliminary feeding test of the extract obtained
from cornstalks.

[Cir. 82]

8 CKOP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING.

plants. Work was taken up in the summer of 1908 on the following :
Cornstalks, flax and rice straw, cotton stalks, bagasse, and tules.
Since that time broom-corn and hemp stalks, hemp wastes, cotton-
hull fiber, stalks of saccharine and nonsaccharine sorghums, Epi-
campes macroura (a southwestern grass whose tops are a by-product
of the root-brush industry), Arundo, Arundinaria, Eulalia, and sev-
eral other plants have been added to the list. During the past year
special attention has been given to practical tests in a large book-
paper mill.

CORNSTALKS.

Cornstalks were taken up first for several reasons: (1) They repre-
sent an enormous supply of raw material — the greatest unused crop
by-product. Over 100,000,000 acres are now devoted annually to
Indian corn in the United States. Taking 1 ton as the yield of stalks
per acre, which is a very conservative estimate, there are produced
at least 100.000,000 tons of stalks each year. Certainly not more than
one-third of this vast quantity is put to paying uses in present farm
practice. Ignoring another third, which may be produced in scat-
tered localities, thus adding a factor to the considerable expense that
would be involved in assembling it, there remain fully 30,000,000
tons of cornstalks grown in the area known as the " corn belt." A
great addition to farm wealth would result if some of this supply of
material could be made into paper and pulp products at a reasonable
profit. (2) Eesults obtained with cornstalks would be applicable in
a considerable measure to all grasses, rushes, and sedges which have
a similar structure, and in less measure to dissimilar plants having
some of the same cellular elements. (3) Considerable pioneering
work had been done with cornstalks, the results of which were
accessible to the Department.

"V^nhile the cornstalk experiments have been encouraging, they have
not yet produced results that justify a definite pronouncement.
Paper of excellent quality has been made from 8 or 10 varieties
of corn during the past season, but it remains to be determined
whether the profit to the manufacturer will enable him to give the
farmer enough for his stalks to pay for harvesting, shredding, baling,
and delivering the same. All parts of the corn plant except the ears
and roots are used. Under present plans it is expected that corn-
stalks will yield three products:

(1) Long fiber, which, on account of its strength and its good felt-
ing and other desirable qualities, is suitable for book, writing, and
other papers of the better class. Bone-dry stalks will yield from
12 to 18 per cent of long fiber, varying with the variety, conditions of
growth, and chemical treatment.

£^The paper upon ichich this page is printed was made from broom-eorn
Stalks and poplar wood. See page 3.
[Cir. 82]

CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING.

(2) Pith pulp, suitable for pulp and paper specialties, such as insu-
lating material, grease-proof wrappers, pie plates, fiber boxes, and
possibly bottles. The yield of pith will range
from 1;") to 30 per cent of moisture-free stalks.
The usefulness of pith pulp for standard prod-
ucts is not as gi-eat as that of the long fiber, but
it is a plastic material that should serve many
useful purposes. The character of the fiber and
pith cells is shown in figure 1.

(3) Cornstalk extract, the soluble solids of
the stalks, obtained by water extraction or by
saturation under pressure and subsequent ex-
pression. The method most commonly em-
ploj^ed in obtaining this extract is to place the
shredded stalks in the digester with a quantity
of water and boil for an hour under a steam
pressure of from 50 to TO pounds. The liquid
containing the soluble solids is then drained off
and evaporated to the desired consistency, while
the extracted stalks remain in the digester ready
for cooking with caustic soda.

A ton of cornstalks will yield from 200 to 300
pounds of soluble solids containing the greater
part of the food value of the stalks. When
made under the best conditions from 8 to 12 per
cent of the extract is protein, about 25 per cent
is invert and cane sugar, and about 25 per cent
more is sugars of the pentose and pentosan class.

About 25 gallons of extract of molasseslike
consistenc}^ were produced at a paper mill dur-
ing the summer of 1910, and a month's prelimi-
nary feeding test of two animals was made in
cooperation with the Bureau of Animal Industry
of the Department of Agriculture. All of the
food mixed with dry matter was eaten and no
injurious effects were observed. It remains to
make a conclusive test with a larger number and
a greater variety of animals before the nutritive
value of the material can be determined or
whether it is injurious if fed for a long time.
As broom-corn and sorghum stalks and rice
straw yield a similar extract, the possibility of
reclaiming the food elements will very likely be

fJ^

\i^

Fig. 1. — Long fiber and
pith cells of Indian
corn.i (Enlarged 71
diameters.)

iThe illustrations used in this circular were drawn by Mr. W. E. Chambers,
Office of Agricultural Technology.
[Cir. 82]

of the

10 CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING.

one of the factors in determining whether or not the wastes of crop
plants can be put to practical use in paper making. If cornstalk
extract proves valuable and the water-soluble solids can be returned
to the farm, mixed with roughage, and fed, an important step in
conservation will have been gained, as the removal of the raw mate-
rial from the farm need not then represent a serious atta'ck upon the
soil resources. The extraction of the soluble solids from the stalks
is beneficial, because it leaves the stalks in an improved and advanced
condition for chemical treatment and lessens the cost by reducing
the quantity of chemicals required.

Cost estimates are incomplete, but it appears that the farmer could
not afford to handle the raw material for less than $5 a ton, air dry.
If the extract has any value it is probable that the manufacturer
could afford to pay this, though these are matters upon which more
accurate data must be secured and which must necessarily be finally
decided in actual practice.

BROOM CORN.

Both the corn and broom-corn stalks used in the Department's
experiments were grown at specially selected places, and a careful
record has been kept of the yield, the cost of production, the space
required for storage, and the keeping quality of the materials. On
the wdiole, the collaborators ^ who gi-ew broom corn had better success
in the production of stalks than those who grew corn. As a conse-
quence, broom-corn stalks have been investigated more thoroughly
than other materials. As a large number of digestions or " cooks "
of Indian corn were made first, much experience was gained which
was of decided advantage in the tests of broom corn.

Broom corn throughout its cultural history has been selected for
the production of a greater quantity and better quality of fiber in
its " brush." It would be only natural if the production of fiber
in one portion of the plant should be correlated to the higher fiber
value of the plant as a whole. This appears actually to be the case.
At any rate, broom-corn stalks contain a higher percentage of long
fiber than do cornstalks. As a result of the experiments that have
been made with broom-corn stalks it may be conservatively stated
that this crop by-product is suitable, so far as the quality and yield
of its pulp are concerned, for immediate use in paper making. Like
cornstalks, it reduces readily to pulp with a comparatively low con-
sumption of chemicals and steam. The time required for pulping

iThe following farmers have assisted the Department by producing corn and broom-
corn stalks for the experimental work : Ovid Fields, Lyons, Ind. ; Eugene D. Funk,
Shirley, 111. ; L. W. Edmundson, Balbec. Ind. ; I. C. Murphy, Sterling. Kans. ; H. Z.
O'Hair, Bushton, 111. ; J. E. Matheny, Miami, Mo. ; J. T. Hancock, Corydon, Ky. ; and
W. A. Hook, Packwood, Iowa.
[Cir. 82]

CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING. 11

is from 3 to 4 hours, as compared with 8 to 12 hours for wood. In
addition, preliminary tests indicate that there will be no great diffi-
culty in recovering the caustic soda used in digestion.

In tests on a laboratory and semicommercial basis, yields of 32 to
40 per cent of fiber were obtained. Later, a cook of 3^ tons was
made in the largest sized rotary digester in common use for wood,
on which a yield of practically 42 per cent was obtained.^ It
appears from this that it will be safe to expect this percentage of
fiber in actual practice. It was found that the proportion of pith
in broom-corn pulp is so low that it could be made directly into a
fair quality of white paper, which, however, would probably be too
brittle for most purposes. Experiments were also made to test the
effect of combining broom-corn pulp with certain proportions of
soda pulp from poplar and sulphite pulp from spruce. It was found
that a combination of 50 per cent of unseparated broom-corn pulp,
pith, and long fiber, together with 50 per cent of poplar, produced
what was pronounced by practical paper men as a merchantable
quality of book paper. In combination with sulphite fiber from
spruce a stronger though somewhat harsher sheet resulted.

The results that have been secured with broom-corn stalks indicate
that this material is suitable for immediate use in paper making, on
the basis of both quality of fiber produced and yield of fiber secured.
Broom-corn stalks have one serious disadvantage, namely, the limited
production of raw material. The figures for the recent census are
not yet available, but according to the returns of the Twelfth Census
178,584 acres were devoted to broom corn in 1899. The yield of
stalks to the acre will probably approximate very nearly 3 tons;
hence, the quantity produced Avill probably be in the neighborhood of
450,000 tons. Many States grow small acreages of broom corn, but
Illinois, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri probably produce fully two-
thirds of the total crop. It is possible that in these States there may
be localities where the acreage cultivated near one central point is
so large that pulp could be produced economically.

The harvesting of the stalks for pulp making does not interfere
with the harvesting of the brush for brooms, nor would it in any way
reduce the quality of the brush produced.

Broom-corn stalks, like cornstalks, yield a product under water
extraction containing practically the whole food value of the raw
material. In the case of broom corn it seems likely that the stalks
could be pulped at a profit without taking into account the possible
value of the food extract.

* .\cknowledgment is here made for much assistance and information furnished l)y S. D.
Warren & Co., Cumberland Mills. Me. Tlio writer is especially indebted to Mr. John E.
Warren, the resident agent of the company, for many helpful suggestions and hearty
cooperation.

[Cir. 82]

12 CKOP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING.

RICE STRAW,

Rice straw may be regarded as one of the most promising crop
materials available for paper making at the present time. In China
and Japan this material has been employed for many years. There
has been considerable discussion about its use in the United States,
but up to the present time no commercial plant has been constructed
for the purpose. Private experimenters have produced excellent
qualities of book and writing papers from it, more particularly in
combination with sulphite pulp and cotton-hull fiber. In the experi-
ments of the Department, yields running approximately from 32 to 40
per cent have been secured. Not less than 35 to 36 per cent could be
expected in practice. The character of the long fiber of this straw is
shown in figure 2. Pith cells are also present in rice straw, but not
in such proportion as in cornstalks. Indeed, it has been found per-
fectly feasible to produce paper without attempting to remove the
pith cells, but merely combining the straw pulp with a suitable quan-
tity of sulphite, soda, or cotton-hull fiber.

Fig. 2. — Rice-straw fibers. Though comparatively' short, these are strong and felt well.

(Enlarged 71 diameters.)

Rice straw also yields a food extract which in the analyses thus
far made runs rather high in protein ; nevertheless, it does not seem
necessar}^ in the case of this waste to depend upon the extract in order
to make the material as a whole utilizable. The chief problem arises
from the low recovery of soda from the spent liquors of the cooking
process, due to the presence of a high percentage of silica in the straw.

Rice straw^ has a distinct ardvantage over cornstalks in that it is
assembled at one place for thrashing and can be baled at once without
extra cost for hauling in from the field and shredding. Although it
does not promise to give as high a jdeld of fiber as broom-corn stalks,
it has a distinct advantage over these because of the greater acreage
grown. It has a further advantage over both corn and broom corn
in that it is grown rather compactly in restricted areas, so that a pulp
or paper mill located in any good rice-growing section could secure its
supply of raw material within a comparatively small distance from
the mill. Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and South Carolina are the
great rice-producing States. At present these States have a total of
only four paper mills, none of Avhich use this material.

The number of acres of rice harvested in the United States in
1909 was 720,000. Growers state that the yield of straw will run from
2 to 2^ tons an acre. Using the lower yield, in the neighborhood of

^^Thc paper upon ivhicJt tliis page fs printed vafi made from cornatalks.
See page 3.

[Cir. 82]

CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING, 13

1,500,000 tons of rice straw are produced annually. At the present
time this is largely a waste product, though a small part is fed to stock.
It is also baled to some extent and shipped to the larger cities for stable
bedding, bringing about $4 to $4.50 a ton. If the price of wood con-
tinues to advance, rice straw should be one of the first crop materials
put to practical use.

COTTON -HULL FIBER.

Cotton-hull fiber is the lint that remains adhering to the hulls after
the long fiber has been removed by the gin and the shorter fiber by the
reginning machines. The hulls are a by-product of the cottonseed-oil
industry.

The fiber is used to some extent as a source of cellulose in the manu-
facture of guncotton; also as a stuffing material for pads and horse
collars, and in upholstering. It may be removed from the seed before
crushing or from the broken hulls after the seed has been crushed and
the kernels extracted. The fiber obtained before crushing has not been
tested in the writer's experiments. That obtained from the broken
hulls contains a high percentage of the hull material, which is re-
moved with some difficulty. As the particles of the hull do not di-
gest or bleach as readily as the fiber, they frequently show up in the
pulp or finished paper as small brown specks, which would seriously
interfere with the salability of the product.

There is some diversity of opinion among producers as to the
quantity of cotton-hull fiber that could be made available. It w^ould
probably be rather small. It is not suitable for paper making in a
pure state, as it is somewhat deficient in strength, and, furthermore,
it will probably command a higher price for other purposes than
paper manufacturers can afford to pay. Cooked in the same digester
with corn, broom corn, or rice straw, cotton-hull fiber has been found
to facilitate greatly the draining of the pulp and also to add softness
to the paper. It is possible that its beneficial effect in this respect
might make a market for a limited quantity of this material in con-
nection with the others mentioned. A further possibility is that this
fiber, treated by special processes, may prove suitable for particular
grades of paper that command unusually high prices. At present,
cotton hulls with the short lint adhering are sold for fertilizer and
command $5 to $8 per ton at the point of production. The hulls are
also mixed with the ground oil cake after expression of the oil and
made into stock foods of various gi-ades. When used as a compo-
nent of stock food it is desirable to remove the short lint. Cotton-
hull fiber will probably never be used extensively in paper making,
and it is only mentioned here because it may prove a valuable adjunct
in the Avorking up of other crop by-products.

tS'Thr paper upon which fhis page is printed icas made from broom-com
stalks and poplar wood. Sec page 3.
[Cir. 82]

14 CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING.

COTTOX STALKS.

Cotton stalks tested in coo})eration with the Forest Service of this
Department were among the first crop wastes reduced to pulp. The
aggregate quantity of these stalks produced in the United States is
large. Those who have given attention to the matter estimate it at
10,000,000 tons. The yield per acre of stalks is much lower than that
of any of the raw plant materials thus far discussed, and probably
does not exceed 1,000 pounds. Cornstalks will average more than
twice this quantity; rice straw, four times as much; and broom
corn, six times this total. Numerous inventors have been attracted to
cotton stalks by the large quantity grown, and much has been claimed
for paper said to be made from them. At the present time no paper
mill is using the material.

In the experiments thus far conducted by this Department cotton
stalks have been found to require harsh chemical treatment, using
about 30 per cent of caustic soda, which is 5 per cent more than poplar
wood requires. They required from six to nine hours, with steam
pressures of from 90 to 110 pounds, for cooking. The jdeld of fiber
ranged from 35 to 43 per cent in various tests, but the fiber was found
to be short and inferior in strength. With this yield and the low
production of 1,000 pounds per acre it would require 5 acres of stalks
to make a single ton of pulp. Difficulties were also encountered in
connection with bleaching. The dark outer bark proved very refrac-
tory, necessitating the use of a large quantity of bleaching powder.
All samples of paper made from this material which the writer has
examined contain so much unbleached material as to render them
unsuitable for anything except wrapping purposes. It is possible
that methods may be devised which will produce a pulp sufficiently
white and a fiber sufficiently strong to make cotton stalks a promising
material, but the results obtained to date are not encouraging.

BAGASSE.

Bagasse is the refuse of the sugar cane after the juice has been
expressed. It is susceptible to the treatment given to the stalks of
corn and broom corn and some of the other materials that have been
discussed. When treated by the caustic-soda process in the ordinary
manner the yield of pulp has been comparatively low. The indi-
vidual fibers, while rather short, are slender, so that a moderately
strong sheet of paper can be produced. The pulp bleaches easily,
especially if it has first been extracted by the method described for
cornstalks. A large percentage of pith is present, which, in practice,
would have to be dealt with as in the case of corn. Several small
plants have been built with a view to making various forms of pulp-
board and the rougher grades of paper from bagasse, but so far as

SS-The paper upon which this page is printed was made from hroom-corn
sialics and poplar wood. Sec page 3.
[Cir. 82]

CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING. 15

the writer knows none of these has been pernumently successful.
The fact that the material is all assembled at the sugar mill and
thoroughly broken u}) in the process of crushing should favor the
utilization of this waste. On the other hand, the fuel value of
bagasse must be carefully considered in any plan to utilize the mate-
rial. The sugar industry, as now organized, counts on the refuse to
furnish a very large proportion of the fuel required for the boilers.
Its value for this purpose has been variously estinuited at from $1.50
to $3 per ton. Both figures are probably too high.

FLAX STRAAV.

In the United States flax is grown almost exclusively for seed, the
annual production amounting to something more than 25,000,000
bushels. The number of acres harvested is about 2,500,000. On an
average, between 2.000 and 2,500 pounds of straw are produced to
the acre. At the present time not more than 250,000 or 300,000 tons
of the total product of approximately 3.000.000 tons are used.

Recent years have seen considerable cleveloiDment in the use of flax
straw, but much remains to be desired, considering the generally
promising nature of the material. Many extravagant claims have
been made and much promoting has been done, some of it of an
extreme!}' questionable character, on the basis of the supposed value
of the straw of seed flax for textile and other purposes. At the
present time its profitable use is confined almost wholly to the manu-
facture of binding twine, upholstery tow, and insulating material
for refrigerator cars and cold-storage houses. The w^aste straw of
the flaxseed industry is a totally different product from the carefully
handled and i)repared fiber from which linen fabrics are made. Even
for twine-making purposes the straw must be harvested and thrashed
in a particular way in order to produce a satisfactorily smooth
quality of twine.

When cooked by the caustic-soda process the straw produces a
material decidedly strong and in many respects promising. The
yield of pulp has not iiin much over 30 per cent of the raw material.
Much private capital has been spent in attempts to make paper from
flax straw, but as ^'•et there is no mill in the United States that uses
the material. Recently private agencies have conducted extensive
experiments with a view to producing paper suitable for cement bags
and the like. The requirement is an extremely difficult one, as paper
for such purposes must have extraordinary strength. Some of the
papers produced came up to the requirement, and the results as a
whole were encouraging. In these tests tow was used and" not the
flax straw as it comes from the thrashing machine. If this method
were followed in practice there would be a considerable addition to

i^'Thr paper upon ichich this page is printed was made from rice straw and
spruce Hood. See page 3.
[Cir. 82]

16 CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING.

the expense for raw material. It requires from 3 to 4 tons of straw
to make 1 ton of tow, and medium tow is worth over $20 per ton at the
tow mills. Flax straw must be regarded as one of the most promising
materials, but extreme caution should be used in its exploitation.
Straw from different sources differs in strength and quantity of fiber;
climatic conditions appear to have a profound effect upon its fiber

value.

MISCELLANEOUS CROP MATERIALS.

In addition to the crop by-products that have been discussed there
are other materials that may prove of value. Among these are the
common grain straws, the wastes of hemp, jute, flax, manila, and
other fiber crops, and the stalks of the grain sorghums which are now
being cultivated in considerable areas and whose culture is being ex-
tended rapidly. Epica7npes macronra^ a southwestern grass, which is
especially plentiful in Mexico, may prove useful, as it has an excel-
lent fiber. This plant, which is known as " zacaton," furnishes the
so-called " rice roots " so extensively used in the making of brushes.
In the brush industry only the roots are used, and the tall-growing
stems and leaves with their fine fiber are a waste product.

Two points should be borne in mind in all attempts to make pulp
from croj) wastes: That not all materials are suitable for making
expensive products and that it not infrequently happens that there
is as much profit, because of lessened cost of production and greater
demand, in making cheaper products for which the material may
be better adapted as in making the higher priced articles.

PLANTS THAT MAY BE GROWN AS PAPER CROPS.

In addition to the waste materials that are available, evidence
has been gathered that certain crops can probably be grown at a
profit to both the grower and manufacturer, solely for paper-making
purposes. One of the most promising of these is hemp. Hemp
grows well in most parts of the country and produces very high
yields of raw material. The average production of " hay-dry "
hemp stalks per acre will reach very nearly 5 tons. Of retted stalks,
an average of from 2^ to 3 tons can be expected. When dew retted, as
is the common practice, the tax on the soil of growing the crop is
very light — an exceedingly important point in farm economics.
According to careful estimates by Prof. L. H. Dewey, hemp can be
grown through the retting stage at a cost of about $14 an acre.
With an average yield of 2^ to 3 tons of retted stalks, it seems very
likely that hemp can be grown profitably solely for paper stock.

Hemp produces a paper of great durability and great strength
in thin sheets. The retted stalks will yield from 40 to 45 per cent of
cellulose. The fiber (fig. 3) is of such a nature and length as to fit

e^The paper upon which this page is printed was made from rice straw and
spruce ivood. See page 3.
[Cir. 82]

CROP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING.

17

Fig. 3. — Individual liemp fibers.
Tliese are of special value
because of their length and
strength. Note that the illus-
tration has been cut in two.
(Enlarged 71 diameters.)

it for the manu-
facture of numer-
ous special papers
that will com-
mand better
prices than the
ordinary grades.
Should retted
hemp come into
use as a paper-
making material
it will effect a
considerable sav-
injr in certain
years to the hemp-
liber industry, as
it frequently hap-
pens that hun-
dreds of tons of
hemp stalks are
over-retted, mak-
ing them unfit
for textile use.
These could be
worked into pa-
per to advantage.
Another plant from which excellent paper
has been produced is the well-known Japa-
nese grass Enlalia japonica, which is much
used in this country for ornamental pur-
poses. This plant thrives luxuriantly in
the latitude of Washington on some of the
poorest soils. It yields a fiber similar to
that of esparto in its behavior. A large
paper-manufacturing company has grown
this grass as far north as Maine and has
produced some excellent varieties of paper
from it. Preliminary observations on a
plat of the grass gi'owing near Washington,
D. C, on very poor soil indicate that an
average yield of at least 2 tons to the acre
may be secured.

Esparto, which is one of the most highly
prized sources of paper in the Old World,
may be useful in some parts of the South-
west where there are extensive areas of

[Cir. 82]

18 CEOP PLANTS FOR PAPEE MAKING.

unused dry land. The grass is one of the important sources of paper
in Europe. The present supply is obtained from the dry regions of
Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, and Spain, where it gTows wild and is har-
vested b}^ hand. It seems likely, furthermore, that the application of
methods of selective breeding might produce strains of esparto of
superior value.

Okra, and jute have received some attention as paper crops, but no
conclusive results have been obtained with them. Samples of paper
from okra that have been examined are rather deficient in strength.
This, however, might readily be due to overtreatment with chemicals.

CONCLUSION

There are numerous crop materials now going to waste that deserve
utilization for the making of paper. Hitherto the price of wood has
been so low that they could not enter into competition with it. This
condition appears to be changing, and a point may soon be reached
where crop by-products can be made into pulj) and paper at a profit
to both the farmer and the manufacturer. There does not seem to
be any reasonable hope at the present time of producing paper stock
from crop wastes that will be cheap enough to use for printing news-
papers. This is due chiefly to two causes — the low cost at which such
paper can be produced from ground wood and the striking adapta-
bility of ground-wood pulp to the newspaper-printing industry.

Not only is the grinding process the cheapest method of obtaining
print paper of any character, but this process also produces the
highest proportion of pulp to" raw material. Wliile the two chemical
processes wdiich have been discussed produce on an average only
about 1.000 pounds of pulp per cord of wood, the yield of ground-
ysood pulp per cord is considerably over 2,000 pounds. Although
lacking in durability, ground-Avood fiber, with the addition of a small
proportion of stronger and better chemical fibers, answers its intended
purpose admirably. It is light, reducing freight cost on the un-
printed paper and postage on the printed. It is opaque, printing
readily on both sides of moderately thin sheets, and, finally, it has
excellent ink-absorbing qualities, fitting it unusually well for use on
the high-speed presses of the present day.

Wood will probably be used for making news paper long after other
materials have acquired importance in many branches of the chemical
pulp industry. It should be added that chemical pulp papers, such as
books and magazines are printed upon, consume over 1,000,000 cords
more of wood each year than the ground-w^ood industry.

There is some skepticism as to the failure of the pulp-wood supplies,
but this is certainly poorly grounded. During 1909 the quantity of

S^Thr iKiprr upon trhich tlil'^ page is printed was made from hroom-eorn
fitalks, long fiber. See page 3.
[Cir. 82]

CEOP PLANTS FOR PAPER MAKING. 19

spruce used was less by 40,000 cords than in 1907, but the cost was
$2,000,000 greater. Present efforts in connection with the reforesta-
tion of spruce and pophir are not extensive enough to produce any
noteworthy effect upon the avaihible supply within a generation. At
the i^resent rate of increase in consumption, it will require between
15,000,000 and 20,000,000 cords of wood to satisfy the demand for
pulp and paper fiber in 1950. It will certainly be impossible to fur-
nish this from the forests. If every acre cut over each year were
reforested it would be twenty-five or thirty years, or possibly even
longer, before the trees could attain sufficient size to wairant cutting.
The forests can not recover fi^om the overdrafts continually being
made upon them; hence it is only a question of a limited number of
years until paper fiber must be grown as a crop, as are practically all
other plant materials entering into the economy of man. While the
conservation of only a few of the by-products of the farms yiekling
paper fiber can be accomplished profitably in the near future and only
a few plants promise to be money-makers immediately if grown solely
for paper production, it seems very probable that raw products now
scarcely considered may in a few years play an important part in the
paper and pulp industry.

Apjaroved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of AgHculture.

Washington, D. C, June H, 1911.

tt^Thc paper upon vhirh this page is printed teas made from cornstalks and
cotton hulls. See page S.
[Cir. 82]

o

The paper upon which this line is printed was made from cornstalks and cotton hulls. See page 3.

[Cir. 82]
20

Issued July 24, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 83.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS ON THE BELLE
FOURGHE IRRIGATION PROJECT.

BY

BEYER AUNE,
Farm Superintendent, Office of Western Agricultural Extension.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 191t

100242°— Cir. S3— 11

[Cir. 83]

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Taylor.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

B. P. I.— 685.

SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS ON THE BELLE
FOURCHE IRRIGATION PROJECT.'

DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION.

The Belle Foiirche Irrigation Project is located in the southwestern
part of Butte County, S. Dak., and draws its water supply principally
from the Belle Fourche and Red Water Rivers, which are diverted
into a reservoir from which two large canals carry the water to the
land. The topography of the area covered by the project is gently
rolling, with occasional flat areas of some extent. The project will
irrigate something over 90,000 acres of land, but owing to the rolling
character of the ground, much of which lies above the level of the
ditch, the area included between the main canals considerably ex-
ceeds this acreage. This feature will enable many farmers to have
both dry land and irrigated land in their farm units, and the Recla-
mation Service has so subdivided the land into units that each farmer
will have as nearly 80 acres of each as the local topography will per-
mit. The irrigated portion of each farm unit will usually vary from
about GO to 100 acres. The territory suiTounding the project is an
open cattle range, the land being covered vcith a sod composed of
western wheat-grass, buffalo grass, grama grass, and some wire-grass
and small sedges. The soil, which has been formed principally
through the weathering of cretaceous shale, is generally a heavy clay,
though along the streams it is considerably lighter.

TREATMENT OF SOD LAND.

Where sod land is to be brought under cultivation, either above or
below the level of the ditch, it is advisable to break the land rather
late in the spring after the grass has started, especially on the heavy
clay soils, but whether it is advisable to try to obtain a crop the first
summer will depend somewhat upon the location of the land. Sod
land on the lower lying creek and river bottoms or where there is no
tendency to rapid surface drainage can probably be advantageously

>Tliis circular is a revision, with some additions, of an nnniinil)orod circular, entitled
" Uiuts to Settlers on the Uelle Kourche I'roject, South Dakota," prepared by Mr. Charles
A. Jensen and issued March 17, 1009.

[Cir.S.] 3

4 SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS ON BELtLE POURCHE PROJECT.

used for corn or flax on spring breaking. But if the land is on the
high-lying prairie (especially if north of the Belle Fourche River)
it is practically useless to try to obtain a crop the first season without
irrigation, and irrigation would be difficult on sod land the first sea-
son. If com is planted on the sod some fodder may be obtained,
but certainly very little grain, if any, will be produced, and it is
doubtful whether the fodder harvested will repay the labor involved.
It should be kept in mind that this refers to the prairie uplands north
of the Belle Fourche River rather than to the area south of it.

It is an observed fact that more rain occurs south than north of
the river, probably because the south side is benefited by the rains
occurring in the Black Hills, which are more frequent than those
northward on the prairies. For instance, during the summer months
(April to September, inclusive) of the years 1908, 1909, and 1910,
Vale, a town on the Belle Fourche River, received an average of 4.11
inches more rain than was recorded at the experiment station 10 miles
to the north during the same periods, the records for each year being
as follows: For 1908, Vale, 13.84 inches, experiment farm, 8.84
inches, a difference in favor of Vale of 5 inches; for 1909, Vale, 16.77
inches, experiment farm, 14.37 inches, a difference of 2,40 inches in
favor of Vale; for 1910, Vale, 12.64 inches, experiment farm, 7.71
inches, a difference of 4.93 inches in favor of Vale.

For the new settler on the north side who comes on his land in the
spring it is a question whether it will not pay him better to break
what land he can in the spring, disk it enough to close up the coarse
air spaces so it will retain moisture during the summer, and then
obtain work somewhere on the project for the remainder of the sum-
mer. There is a fairly good demand for labor in connection with
the work of the Reclamation Service and also on the farms already
started. During the summer the land that has been broken should be
kept in good condition bj' an occasional disking or harrowing, so that
the sod will rot and be ready for backsetting in the fall. If the
backsetting is not too deep (that is, not more than 4 or 5 inches) the
soil can easily be worked into condition for winter wheat, which suc-
ceeds very well in the area. This procedure will probably prove bet-
ter for the new settler than to stay on the farm the first summer with
but small prospect of getting any returns from the land. If the new
spring breaking is planted to a crop and the crop harvested without
irrigation, the land w^ill probably be too dry in the fall to be put into
winter Avheat.

PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED.

On land that has been previously broken, the seed bed for spring
planting should be prepared as early as practicable. The plowing
should, when possible, be done the previous autumn, so that the soil

[Cir. 8?.]

SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS ON BELLE FOURCHE PROJECT. 5

surface may be in condition to catch the early spring rains, thus pre-
venting their running oft' the surface. This is particularly applicable
to the heavy gumbo soils, which, if left in a compact condition over
-winter, shed water very effectually. If the land is plowed in the
spring it is not advisable to plow deep, especially in the gumbo soils,
as the subsoil turned up will not be in good condition for plant
growth. It is important to harrow the land immediately after plow-
ing, as this helps to establish a mulch which prevents undue loss of
soil moisture and tends to firm down the soil, thereby establishing
good germinating conditions. The packing of the soil by harrow-
ing will also prevent the wind from gaining free entrance to the
plowed layer. The loss of moisture caused by the high winds which
are prevalent in the spring is greater than the loss occasioned by the
high summer temperature; hence the importance of the harrowing.
If the land has been fall-plowed it should be gone over with a disk
or harrow in the spring as soon as possible after the frost is out of
the ground and the surface dry enough, in order to prevent the loss
of moisture, to keep the surface from crusting, and to break up the

clods.

EARLY PLANTING IMPORTANT.

The growing season at Belle Fourche is relatively short, and spring
crops should be started as early as conditions will permit. Such
crops as wheat, oats, rye, and Canada peas will stand some spring
frost without serious injury, and these crops can ordinarily be
seeded with safety from the first to the middle of April. In 1909
wheat, oats, and barley were sown on the experiment farm from
April G to 8, and corn was planted May 10. In 1010 wheat was
sown April 2, oats, April 5, barley, April 8, and com was planted
May 18.

In 1908 the last frost occurred May 20; in 1909, May 17; and in
1910. ]May 23. During these years the first autumn frosts occurred
September 26, September 23, and August 25, respectively.

AMiile early planting does not result in a rapid early growth of top,
it enables the roots to become well established in the soil, and the deep
rooting gives the plants an advantage when later in the spring the
temperature gets high enough for more rapid growth above ground.
This advantage is important in the dry-land soils. Of course, seed-
ing should not be done so early that the cold, wet ground will cause
the seeds to rot, but the spring climatic conditions in the area are
usually such that seeding may safely be done quite early. Seeding
should, when possible, be done with a grain drill, as the seed can
not be properly buried and surrounded firmly with moist soil by
broadcasting followed by harrowing or disking. As the seed bed in
the heavA' gumbo soil is likely to be somewhat rough, seeding should

[Cir. 83]

6 SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS OX BELLE FOUKCHE PEOJECT,

be deep. "Wheat, oats, barley, rye. and peas should be put in about
3 inches deep, and a press-wheel attachment on the grain drill should
be used to ]Dack the soil around the seeds, insuring an even germina-
tion and stand.

CROP VARIETIES.

The varieties of grain best adapted to the region have not yet been
as definitely determined as is desirable, but a few varieties have
shown themselves sufficiently well adapted to be recommended. The
Kubanka variety of durum (macaroni) wheat is well suited to the
dry lands. Fife and Bluestem wheats also do well as spring wheats
and should have the preference over the durum varieties on the irri-
gated land. Three varieties of oats, Kherson, Sixty-Day, and
Swedish Select, are among the best so far known. For dry-land
areas the preference seems to be in favor of Kherson or Sixtj^-Day
oats, but the Swedish Select variety would probably be better for
irrigated land, though, as it produces considerable straw, irrigation
should be used rather sparingly. Among the winter wheats, Turkey
Bed and Kharkof, are the best for the area. If soil conditions are
right, fall seeding can be done from the first part of September to the
middle or even the latter part of October.

Among the various barleys grown. Hanna Xo. 24 has proved a
good two-rowed variety. Of corn varieties so far tested, Minnesota
No. 13 has been the best. For land which for any reason can not
be seeded in early spring, proso is a good, quick-maturing catch
crop which may be planted as late as June 5 to 15.

Potatoes should be given a place on ever}^ farm. A number of
varieties are now grown on the project. Among them the Early
Eose, the Early Ohio, and the Blue-Pitted varieties seem to be
among the best. The quality of potatoes raised on the project is
good and the crop should be given considerable emphasis.

ALFALFA AND GRASS CROPS.

In favorable situations on the project hay can be made from the
native grasses, but as the land is settled the supply from this source
will decrease and the increased demand for hay will need to be met by
cultivated hay crops. Of the possible hay crops alfalfa appears to be
the most promising. Very little has yet been done on the project
in the way of alfalfa production. It has been shown, however, that
alfalfa is a success on the lighter soil types under irrigation. It is
doubtful if it would succeed on the heavy upland gumbo without
irrigation, or even with irrigation unless the subsoil is somewhat
open. Alfalfa is a deep-rooted plant, and on much of the heavier
Belle Fourche land the subsoil is undecomposed shale, which often

[Cir. 83]

SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS ON BELLE FOURCHE PROJECT. 7

contains enonoli alkali to prevent the growth of alfalfa. It seems
likeh^ that western wheat-grass is better adapted to the heavy soils,
especially in the lower places that receive the rim-off from the sur-
rounding slopes. These loAv-lying lands are not well suited to
alfalfa, while wheat-grass does well on them. Some of this grass is
being tried at the experiment farm, but it is yet too soon to know
how it will succeed under artificial seedinjr.

SPECIAL POINTS ON ALFALFA GROWING.

It would not be advisable for the new farmer without previous ex-
perience to seed a large area of alfalfa. It should be planted on land
that has been under cultivation for a year or two at least. "Wlien
young, alfalfa is delicate and requires very favorable conditions,
though when once well established it becomes very hardy. It should
be seeded during May, at the rate of about 8 to 10 pounds of seed per
acre, without a nurse crop, and the moisture in the soil up to the time
of seeding should be conserved by thorough tillage. Alfalfa should
be seeded with a grain drill, if possible, to a depth of 1 to 1^ inches,
and it can be harrowed lightly after it is several inches high if the
conditions of rainfall and soil require it. Under irrigation it can be
seeded more heavily — 12 to 15 pounds of seed to the acre — and, if
desired, with a nurse crop of wheat or oats.

Some alfalfa seed is raised in the area, and if this is clean and
sound it will pay to use it in preference to any other. If no local
seed is available, care should be used to get seed of hardy northern-
grown strains. Alfalfa fields may be greatly improved by surface
cultivation in the spring, which not only hastens the early growth
but postpones the time when the first irrigation is necessarj\ It may
even be possible, if the season is favorable, to delay irrigation until
just before the first crop is ready to cut. It is important that
alfalfa be irrigated just before cutting rather than soon after. Al-
falfa fields are often badly injured by scalding when irrigated just
after a crop is removed, and much moisture is also unnecessarily lost
before the plants become tall enough to shade the ground. When
irrigated before cutting, the 3'oung shoots will begin growth while
the crop is being removed and the second crop will make a quicker
growth.

TREE PLANTING FOR WINDBREAKS.

Tree planting should be one of the first things undertaken by the
plains farmer, so that windbreaks may be established as soon as
possible. The proper preparation of the land for this purpose is
an important requirement. An attempt to start trees by breaking a
few furrows of sod and giving no subsequent cultivation is likely to
prove unsatisfactory. Under this treatment some of the trees may

[Cir. 83]

8 SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS ON BELLE FOURCHE PROJECT.

start, but more of them are bound to die for want of moisture. If
the land to be planted to trees has previously been under cultiva-
tion it should be plowed as deeply as possible in the fall and left
rough until spring. Avhen it should be thoroughly disked and har-
rowed before planting. New land should be broken in the early
summer, replowed deep after the spring rains, and then disked and
harroAved until the sod is in good tilth. Harrowing should be con-
tinued during the remainder of the summer to provide a good dust
mulch.

Some of the best trees to use for windbreaks are green ash, cotton-
■w^ood, Avhite elm, white willow, Russian golden willow, Russian
-oleaster, honey locust, Scotch pine, Black Hills spruce, and red cedar.
The willows, the cottonwood, and the Black Hills spruce should be
planted in moist situations.

If weather conditions are favorable, planting should be done
'during April and the first part of May. The rows should be at least
24 feet apart. On dry land 30 feet would be better, while on irri-
gated land the rows may be as close as 16 feet. The trees should
be i^lanted G to 8 feet apart in the rows and in such manner as to
allow cross cultivation. Cultivation is an absolute necessity, and as
soon as the trees are set out the cultivator or drag should be started •
and a deep dust mulch maintained during the summer months. On
heavy gumbo soil deep cultivation must be practiced so as to keep
the ground from crusting beneath the mulch. An absolutely clean
fallow must be maintained all summer until the trees shade the
ground enough to keep out the weeds and grass.

APPLES.

Some of the hardier varieties of api^les will do very well in this
region. To start an orchard, the land must be well prejDared and
the trees given plenty of room — not closer than 33 feet each way.
Deep and absolutely clean cultivation should be maintained all
summer. Yearling and 2-year-old trees are the best to plant. The
following varieties are suggested as being likely to do well : Yellow
Transparent, Oldenburg, Wealthy, Pewaukee, Peerless, Milwaukee,
and Malinda. Crab apples : Florence and Whitney.

SMALL FRUITS.

Small fruits can be readily grown in this section. The land must
be well prejoared before and thoroughly cultivated after planting.
For currants, gooseberries, and raspberries the rows should be 6
feet apart and the plants 3 to 4 feet apart in the row. For straw-
berries the roAvs should be 4 feet apart and the plants 18 to 24 inches
apart in the row.

[Cir. S3]

SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS ON BEIJ.E FOURCHE PROJECT. 9

The following varieties are suggested as being adapted to the

region :

Gooseberries. Downing and ITonghton; raspberries, Sunbeam (red)
and Cumberland (black); strawberries, Dnnlap and AVnrfield ; cur-
rants. Fay and Wilder.

During the winter currants, gooseberries, and raspberries should
be laid down and covered for better protection from extreme cold.

GARDENING.

All vegetables of the northern latitndes can be grown successfully
on the project. AVhere irrigation is used, water should be applied
in the fall and the land plowed deep and left rough during the
winter. In the spring it should be double-disked and harrowed until
in the best of tilth. On dry land it is best to have the garden follow
summer fallow. Wliile this, of course, requires twice as much land,
it will be found to pay in the long run. The land to be summer-
fallowed might be plowed in the spring or fall before, but it "must
be iriven clean cultivation all summer so as to save all available
moisture for the next year's garden. It will be found much easier
to take care of a garden if the rows are planted 3i to 4 feet apart,
so that the horse cultivator may be used. As in all other cases, deep
and clean cultivation must be practiced.

CONTROLLING THE SOIL MOISTURE.

One of the most important physical factors in agriculture and one
which is to some extent within the farmer's control is the soil mois-
ture. Its proper use and conservation should always be kept in mind
whether the land is to be dry-farmed or irrigated. Irrigation insures
moisture at the time it is needed, but irrigation is often seriously over-
done. At least one irrigation can often be dispensed with to the very
great advantage of the crop by proper tillage in the spring to hold
the moisture already in the ground at the time of seeding. Grain
after it is well up can safely be harrowed with an ordinary steel
harrow with the teeth slanting Avell back. Harrowing of grain after
a rain loosens the soil surface, checks evaporation, and hastens the
warming of the soil, which is necessary to plant growth.

By proper tillage both before and after seeding it seems highly
probable that grain can be matured ordinarily with but one irrigation
during the season. If grain has been planted deep with a grain drill
it can be harrowed, even when 5 to 6 inclies high, without serious
injury. It is always inadvisable to irrigate grain crops early in the
season unless it is absolutely necessary, and there will generally be
enough moisture in the gi'ound to give the plants a good start if the
spring moisture is properly conserved. Early irrigation, especially

tCir. 83]

10 SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS ON BELLE FOURCHE PROJECT.

if carried on by the flooding system, will leave the surface of the
ground in a hard, crusted condition, which permits the rapid escape
of moisture from the gTound and keeps the soil cold.

METHODS OF lERIGATION.

The Reclamation Service expects to deliver, if required, about 24
acre-inches of Avater during the season, but it Avould be harmful
both to crops and to soil should the farmers actually apply so much
water to their crops in addition to the rainfall. A wheat-grass
meadow might tolerate that quantity, but no other crop excepting
possibly alfalfa with good underground drainage should be given
so much water. Lands susceptible to the accumulation of alkali
would be seriously damaged by the excessive use of water.

It is probable that for some time the flood method of irrigation will
be more generally used in the area than any other. Owing, however,
to the close texture and heaviness of so much of the soil, the furrow
method would undoubtedly be the better one to use so far as the effect
on the soil surface is concerned. If the land surface is fairlv smooth
the field can be furrowed at a reasonabl}^ small expense.

A satisfactory furrowing implement can be made by fastening
together several pieces of 4 by 6 inch or 6 by 6 inch timbers, parallel
to each other, about 18 or 24 inches apart, with the sharp corners down.
When drawn over the field this will leave small V-shaped furrows
several inches deep in which the water will flow quite readily for some
distance. This method of irrigation has the advantage of the flood-
ing method in that it leaves the soil surface between the furrows
comparatively dry, and this dry surface acts as a mulch, preventing
the rapid loss of the moisture which would follow flooding. Land
thus furrowed can be irrigated more quickly and less water is neces-
sary than when the flood method is used. As the work of applying
water to the land is the most expensive item in irrigation the most
economical method should be used.

"WTierever possible, land should be thoroughly irrigated in the fall
to insure a good supply of soil moisture for the gi'owth of the crop
the following spring. "\Miere this is done there should be no difficulty
in getting the crop far advanced the next season before irrigation is
necessary. A^liile newly broken sod land can not be put into good
condition for irrigation the first summer, it might nevertheless be
irrigated after midsummer and seeded to winter wheat.

MANURING.

An important factor which should be kept in mind by the farmer
who has heavy soil, such as gumbo, is the need of getting organic
matter into the soil. All available barnyard manure should be used

[Cir. 83]

SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS ON BELLE FOUECHE PROJECT. 11

on heavy land, even thoiip:h the land is new. The plowing under of
green crops will also loosen up the soil, making it more congenial to
plants and easier to cultivate. In general, the best time to apply
manure is in the fall, and when practicable it should be plowed under
at that time.

THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM.

An experiment farm lias been established on the project, about 2
miles northwest of Newell, S. Dak., where experiments are cari'ied
on for the solution of problems pertaining to the area. Part of it
will be under irrigation when water is available, and part of it is
now being used for experiments in dry-land! agriculture. Any
information which can be supplied by the station will be cheerfully
furnished.

PUBLICATIONS OF VALUE TO FARMERS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE

PROJECT.

The following publications of the Department of Agriculture and
of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station will prove
of value to settlers on the Belle. Fourche Irrigation Project.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The publications of the Department of Agriculture may be obtained without
cost upon application to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The
editions of some of these publications are necessarily limited, and when the
supply is exhausted and no funds are available for procuring additional copies,
applicants are referred to the Superintendent of Documents, Government Print-
ing Office, who has them for sale at nominal prices.

In ordering give the classification under which the bulletin appears, as well
as the number and title; thus. Farmers' Bulletin 138, "Irrigation in Field and
Garden."

BULLETINS, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

No. 130. Dry-Land Agiiculture.

182. Ten Years' Experience with the Swedish Select Oat.

187. A Study of Cultivation Methods and Crop Rotation for the Great

Plains Area.

188. Dry Farming in Relation to Rainfall and Evaporation.

lOG. Breeding Drought-Itesistant Forage Plants for the Great Plains Area.
203. The Importance and Iiniirovenient of the Grain Sorghums.

CIRCULARS, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

5. Barley Culture in the Northern Great Plains.
12. Dry-Land Grains.

24. Alfalfa in Cultivated Rows fen- Seed Production in Semiarid Regions.
59. Dry-Land Grains for Western North and South Dakota.
[Cir. 83]

12 SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS ON BELLE FOURCHE PROJECT.

REPRINTS FROM YEARBOOK.

No. 195. Successful Wheat Growing in Seniiarid Districts.
393. Tlie Relation of Irrigation to Dry Farming.
458. The Use of Small Water Supplies for Irrigation.
461. Dry-Land Farming in the Great Tlains Area.
495. Soil Mulches for Checliing Evaporation.
505. The Problems of an Irrigation Farmer.

farmers' bulletins.

138. Irrigation in Field and Garden.

139. Emmer : A Grain for the Semiarid Regions.
158. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches.

263. Practical Information for Beginners in Irrigation.

322. Milo as a Dry-Land Grain Crop.

371. Drainage of Irrigated Lands.

373. Irrigation of Alfalfa.

382. The Adulteration of Forage-Plant Seeds.

386. Potato Culture on Irrigated Farms of the West.

395. Sixty-Day and Kherson Oats.

399. Irrigation of Grain.

404. Irrigation of Orchards.

448. Better Grain-Sorghum Crops.

SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETINS.

The bulletins of the South Daliota Agricultural Experiment Station may be
obtained by writing to the Director at Brookings, S. Dak.

No. 101. Forage Plants.

102. Evergreens for South Dakota.
104. Raspberries, Blackberries, and Dewberries.
110. Progress in Variety Test of Oats.

112. The Killing of Mustard and Other Noxious Weeds in Grain Fields by
the Use of Iron Sulphate.

118. Corn.

119. Fattening Lambs.

120. Progi-ess of Variety Test of Alfalfa.

121. Sugar Beets in South Dakota.

122. Creamery Butter.

SUMMARY.

The Belle Fourche Irrigation Project comprises about 90,000
acres in the southwestern part of Butte County, S. Dak. The roll-
ing nature of the gi'ound permits both diy and irrigated fanning.

The temtory sun-ounding the project is an open cattle range
covered with a sod of native grasses. The soil is generally heavy.

Sod land should be broken late in the spring after the grass has
started. Land along the bottoms may be used to advantage for corn
and flax on spring breaking, but ou the higher lying prairie it is
useless to attempt a crop the first year without irrigation.

[Cir. 83]

SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLERS ON BELLE FOURCHE PROJECT. 13

The gi^owing season is comparatively short. Such crops as wheat,
oats, rye, and Canada peas will stand some spring frosts and may be
planted from the first to the middle of April.

A few varieties of grains have shown themselves sufficiently well
adapted to be recommended. The Kubanka durum wheat is well
suited to the dry lands, while Fife and Bluestem should have the
preference on irrigated land. Kherson, Sixty-Day, and Swedish
Select oats are the best known so far. Among winter wheats, Turkey
Red and Kharkof are the best.

Fall seeding can be done from the fii-st of September to the middle
or last of October.

Among barleys, Hanna No. 24 has proved a good two-rowed va-
riety. Of corn varieties tested, Minnesota No. 13 has been the best.
Proso is a quick-maturing catch crop that may be planted as late
as June 5 to 15.

A number of varieties of potatoes are grown, and this crop should
have a place on every farm.

Little has been done on the project in the way of alfalfa produc-
tion, but it has been shown that it is the most promising hay crop.
Western wheat-grass probably is better adapted to the heavy soils.
Alfalfa should be seeded during May. It is not advisable without
previous experience to seed a large area of alfalfa. Alfalfa should
be planted on land that has been under cultivation for a year or two,
and care should be taken to obtain seed of hardy northern-gTown

strains.

For windbreaks the best trees are the green ash, cottonwood, white
elm, white willow, Russian oleaster, honey locust, Russian golden
Avillow, Scotch pine. Black Hills spruce, and red cedar. Cultivation
of young trees is an absolute necessity.

Some of the hardier varieties of apples, such as Yellow Trans-
parent, Oldenburg, Wealthy, Pewaukee, Peerless, Milwaukee, and
Malinda, are likely to do well ; of crab apples, the Florence and the
'\Miitney are suggested.

Small fruits can be readily grown in this section, as can also all
vegetables of the northern latitudes.

Soil moisture is an important physical factor within the control
of the farmer. Irrigation is often overdone. At least one irriga-
tion can often be dispensed with to great advantage. By proper
tillage before and after seeding it is probable that grain may be
matured with but one irrigation. Whenever possible, land should
be irrigated thoroughly in the fall.

The heavy soils need organic matter, and all barnyard manure
should be used. Manure should be applied in the fall and plowed

[Cir. 83]

14 SUGGESTIONS TO SETTLEES ON BELLE FOURCHE PEOJECT.

under at the same time. The plowing under of green crops will also
loosen up the soil.

An experiment farm has been established on the project for the
purpose of carrying on experiments with problems pertaining to the
area, and information that can be supplied will be cheerfulW fur-
nished,

ApjD roved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, June 12, 1911.

[Cir. 83 J

\

Issued December 11, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 84.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

SUGGESTED CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE
BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

NEW YOki.
BY BOTANICAL

R. YOUNGBLOOD,
Assistant Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management.

V_'ir. 0-i 11 1 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1911

[Cir. 84]
2

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Taylor.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

B. P. I. -688.

SUGGEST1:1) CROPPING SVSTI-MS 1-OK THE BLACK

LANDS OF TEXAS

INTRODUCTION.

The black-liuul region of Texas is one of the most productive and
best developed agricultural sections of the Southwest, yet it pre-
sents some of the most difficult problems to be found in tiiis country.
The older portions have passed through a period of exploitive farm-
ing, during which cotton and grain were grown to the exclusion of
crops which might have exerted a beneficial effect upon the soil. As
in all rich, new sections, no effort was put forth to maintain fertihty,
because it was thought that the productiveness of the black heavy
soils was practically inexhaustible. Eventually a marked dechne
was noted in the yields of all crops, and as land values rose ^ — owing
to the increase in population — the conditions became such that only
the most sldllfully operated farms could be made to pay reasonable
wages for labor performed and interest on the investment in land and
equipment.

The main problem, therefore, and the one deserving immediate
attention, is that of improving the soils and maintaining the farms
in a high state of productiveness. This is made difficult by the
prevalence of the disease known as root-rot (Ozonium oinniverum),
which attacks and materiall}^ injures crops, especially cotton and the
legumes.

Cotton, the cliief source of income, is damaged by this fungus to
the extent of several milhons of dollars annually.

The legumes have been grown onlv to a very limited extent, as
there was not the same incentive during this period of exploitation
to cultivate them against the attacks of the root-rot that there was
in the case of cotton. Consequently, a system of farming developed
on most farms in whicli legumes had no part. On tlie few farms
where legumes are found, cowpeas and alfalfa are the most common.
Cowpeas, however, are nearly always badly damaged by root-rot,
wliile alfalfa is usually attacked the second or third year,- making

' During the last 40 yoars thp price of l)la(k land has gradually risen from a few dollars to from $50 to $200
per acre, depending upon its desirability for farming purposes and its location.

2 Oa the uplands southwest of Williamson County it is doubtful whether alfalfa should be included at
all on account of the severe effects of root-rot; but on the alluvial bottom lands it is grown with profit.
Its cultivation west of San Antonio depends largely on irrigation, a subject not discussed in this buUetin-

[Cir. 84] 3

4

CKOPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

it necessary to plow up the field and plant to some cr(){) not affected
by this disease.

The general knowledge of the beneficial efl'ect of leguminous crops
on the land, strengthened by the local experience of increased yields
resulting from turning under alfalfa, led to investigations which had
for their object the control or extermination of root-rot, so that it
might be possible to grow the legumes and estabhsh types of farming
which would restore the productiveness of the soil.

The first of these investigations, which have been continued to the
present time, was undertaken about nine years ago by Dr. C. L.
Shear, of this Bureau, and his assistant, Mr. George F. Miles. Though
they tried every available means of eliminating root-rot without

Fig. 1. — Expc'rinicnt-al plats of cotlun at IVaty, Tex., shuu iiig the results of deep fall plowins;. Plat A, at
the left, was plowed 7 to 9 inches deep on Novemlier 12, 1906. Only 26.79 per cent of thosj plants were
dead on November 11, 1907, and most of these had matured their crop. Plat B, at the right, received
ordinary spring plowing. Of these plants, 69.54 per cent were dead on November 11, 1907, and these had
died so early that they matured but a small part of their crop.

success, they found that deep fall plowing (fig. 1), apphcations of
barnyard manure, and the rotation of grain crops with cotton in a
large measure controlled the disease.

These facts, together with knowledge of certain farm practices
which developed of necessity under root-rot conditions, fumisli a
basis for the establisliment of rotations in wliich the well-known
crops of this region follow each other naturally. For example, being
compelled to plow up his alfalfa, the farmer follows it with grain,
usually corn or wheat. He knows from experience that cotton would
not succeed, for the reason that it is just as susceptible to root-rot

[Cir. 84]

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS. 5

as alfalfa. This fact suggests at once a rotation of alfalfa, grain
crops, and cotton, so arranged as to alternate susceptible crops with
those which appear to be immune.

This work has also shown the need of a greater variety of legumes
which may be used under root-rot conditions. For this reason an
extensive test of varieties is being made in cooperation with farmers
in the black-land region.

DESCRIPTION OF THE BLACK-LAND REGION.

The black-land region comprises two parallel belts and numerous
isolated areas of level to rolhng prairie, aggregating between 13,000,000

Fig. 2.— Location of the black lands, showing the average annual distribution of rainfall in the Southwest
(based upon records of the United States A\'cathor Bureau covering the period from 1871 to 1908, inclu-
sive).

and 14,000,000 acres. The main black-land belt extends from the
southern part of Oklahoma in a southwesterly direction across Texas.
(Fig, 2.) Tt is about 550 miles long and varies in width from about
65 miles in northern Texas to about 25 miles in southwestern Texas.
West of the main belt lies the Fort Worth i)rairie, an irregularly
sluiped, narrow belt extending from Red River to the vicinity of
Round Rock, Tex. It is about 240 miles long and varies from 5 to
25 miles in width. The two belts are separated from Red River to
the vicinity of Waco, Tex., by a narrow strip of sandy timbered
country knowii as the east, or lower, cross timbers. Southwest of
Waco the two areas He contiguous and dovetail into each other.

[Cir. 841

6

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

Isolated areas, varying from a few acres to many sections in extent,
are found west of the Fort Worth prairie in Somervell, Erath, Bosque,
Comanche, Brown, Hamilton, Mills, Coryell, Lampasas, Bell, Burnet,
Llano, and other western counties.

CLIMATE.

The cHmate is typically southern. The summers are long and hot,
wliile the winters are mild, with the exception of a few ''northers,"
which, because of their sudden appearance, are rather severe. The

Fig. 3.— Location of the black lands, showing the precipitation during the crop-growing season (based
upon records of the United States Weather Bureau covering the period from 1871 to 1908, inclusive).

belt extends from the humid region of northeastern Texas to the arid
region in old Mexico. Wind velocities increase from an annual
hourly velocity of 7 or 8 miles in the northeastern to 10 or 12 miles
per hour at the southwestern end of the belt. The mean annual
temperature at Paris, in the northeast, is 64° F.; at San Antonio, in
the southwest, 69° F.

The usual crop-growing season extends fi'om about February 1
to October 31, depending upon the latitude.

A close study of figures 2, 3, and 4 wall greatly facihtate an under-
standing of farm problems in various parts of the black-land belt.
It must be kept in mind, however, that a given amount of rainfall

[Cir. 84]

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS. 7

ill the Southwest is not as efficient in ero]) production as the same
amount in the Central West or in the Eastern States, owing to the
greater evaporation in the Southwest.

ins,

KmfrTTlfcunTf^^ I4t1-Hl i7\Jt\1\

Fig. 4.— Graphical representation of tlie distribution of the average precipitation during the several
months of th(>, year in the Southwest at selected areas extending westward from the eastern to the
western limits of the black-land region. The line of diagrams at the top of the figure shows the dis-
triVjution over the territory extending west from the vicinity of Memphis, Tenn., through Little Rock,
Ark., the vicinity of Oklahoma City, Okla., Amarillo, Tex., to Santa Fe, N. Mex. The middle line
of diagrams shows the distribution over the territory extending west from the vicinity of Vicksbiirg,
MLss., through Shrcvcport, La., and Fort Worth, Blanco, and El Paso, Tex. The bottom line of dia-
grams shows the distribution over the territory along the Gulf coast extending from the vicinity of
New Orleans, La., through Galveston and Corpus Christi to Brownsville, Tex. (Data compiled by
the L'nited Slates Weather Bureau.)

The foll(nving dates show^ing the extreme and average occurrence
of kilhng frosts (first in autumn and hist in spring) in this region are
com])iled from the records of the United States Weather Bureau:

Table I. — Extreme and average dates of killing frosts in the black-land region of Texas,

Station and relative location in the region.

Paris (northern part)

Dallas (farther southwest)

Waco (central part)

San Antonio (southwestern part) .

[Cir. 84]

Average date.

First in
autumn.

Nov. 15

..do

Nov. 10
Nov. 30

Last in
spring.

Mar. 28
Mar. 26
Mar. 16
Feb. 25

Extreme date.

First in
autumn.

Nov. 3

..do

...do

Nov. 9

Last in
spring.

Apr. 12

May 1

Apr. 5

Mar. 19

8 CKOPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

SOILS.

The types of soil of the main black belt are derived from the under-
lying soft, chalky, or marly limestones, wliile those of the Fort Worth
prairie and the more western isolated areas are derived from a harder
and more impervious limestone wliich obviously is nearer the surface
and more to be reckoned with in crop production than the soft lime-
stone, wliich is more or less penetrable by water and the roots of
plants. These soils are referred to as "black land," ''black wax,"
''black waxy," "tallow ridge," "black prairie," "limestone," or
"black sticky."

In their virgin state the black-land soils usually contain ample
quantities of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime, and organic
matter, but after a few years of cultivation to grain and cotton the
humus content becomes deficient and the soil assumes a poor physical
condition, favoring the development of cotton root-cot and causing
crops to suffer quickly from drought. The phosphoric- acid content
becomes low in the loamy types of soil and the potash low in the
stiff, black clays. Yet attempts to replenish these elements by the
use of commercial fertilizers have resulted unsatisfactorily. The best
results have been obtained from the use of barnyard manure and
the plowing under of cowpeas and alfalfa. These experiences suggest
that the immecUate need of the black lands is organic matter. For-
merly an abundance of lime was present in these soils, but now,
owing to the cropping systems used, it has been found that applica-
tions of lime may profitably be made as a means of improving the
physical condition of the heavier soils.

That the black-land soils are durable is very evident. The writer
has visited a number of fields wliich have been cultivated contin-
uously for 40 to 60 years and found them still producing fair crops of
small grain, corn, and cotton. Compared with newer fields, however,
a decHne in the yields of these crops is perceptible. Abandoned
farms in this region are rare.

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE BLACK-LAND REGION.

The occupation of Texas by white men began in 1820; but the
black lands were utilized chiefly for hunting until along in the thir-
ties. Farming began along the streams and in the sandy timbered
region of east Texas, and the black lands were devoted chiefly to
grazing until railroads were built and modern implements and
barbed wire came mto use. Their fertility, however, was recog-
nized by some as early as the forties, and here and there a farm was
opened upon which crops of corn, wheat, rye, and oats were grown.
On the loams near the timber and on the alluvial soils along the
streams crops of Irish and sweet potatoes were grown.

[Cir. 84]

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS. 9

Thougli some cotton was iirodiiced in tlie black-land counties in
the forties and fifties, it did not become an important crop until
along in the sixties. Since then it has been the cliief money crop,
and the acreage has steadily increased. While it is more suscepti-
ble to root-rot than legumes, it has been successfully grown by
shiftmg it from place to place on the farm. It is planted either
in uninfested fields or after such crops as com, wheat, or oats,
which have been shown by experience to be immune to this dis-
ease. One farm was found upon which a definite 3-year mixed
rotation, including wheat, oats, mUo, corn, sorghum, and cotton,
has been maintained for a third of a century. During this time
no material loss has been sustained from root-rot, though it is pres-
ent in all the fields.

Legumes have been growTi to only a limited extent on the black
soils. Census statistics show that though cowpeas have been grown
to a limited extent in the black -land counties no material increase
in their acreage has occurred since 1849, The acreage devoted to
alfalfa is not largo, because it does not have the permanency as a
meadow that it assumes in other sections. It thrives usually from
two to five years, then begins to die out in spots as a result of root-
rot, and soon becomes unprofitable, Cowpeas and alfalfa being prac-
tically the only leguminous crops with which the farmers were
familiar, they came to the erroneous conclusion that this class of
crops could not be profitably grown, mth the result that the legumes
are by no means as extensively grown as their well-known value
for grazing, hay, and soil-improvement purposes in other sections
would seem to justify.

ROOT-ROT IN THE BLACK-LAND REGION.

The Texas root-rot is a fungous disease which attacks the roots of
cotton, fruit trees, sweet and white potatoes, and, so far as known,
all leguminous crops and many other cultivated plants. The grains
and grasses arc not affected by it. Apparently, its most favorable
habitat is the heavy, black, waxy soils, especially those in poor
physical condition. It is most conspicuous in fields that have been
planted to cotton contmuously or devoted to alfalfa for some time.
It apparently becomes more destructive in its effects as the arid
region is approached. That not all fields are infested with it is
evident from the fact that here and there we fuid cotton fields and
alfaKa meadows wliich show no signs of the disease. An alfalfa
meadow on the stiff black upland, near Howe, Tex., said to be 11
years old, is still in perfect condition.

The disease is seldom found established in all the fields of any
given farm. Usually it does not affect a cotton crop planted in a
field which has been devoted to grain for two or three years imme-
9418°— Cir. 84—11 2

10 CEOPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

diately preceding, but there is always the possibiUty of its reap-
pearing at any time. How it spreads is not well known, but it is
thought that it is carried from infested fields by winds, water, and
farm implements.

Though there is no known method of exterminating this disease,
its evil effects may be practically overcome by a proper rotation of
crops, deep fall plowing, and the incorporation of organic matter
into the soil, all of which are highly desirable practices for any
black-land farm.^

SUITABLE ROTATIONS.

Few, if any, satisfactory rotations are practiced in the black lands
of Texas. The uncertainty of the rainfall is a factor which often
forces the farmer planning to practice a given rotation to quickly
change his plans — as, for instance, when the land is prepared for
aKaKa which, for lack of moisture, can not be sown. The farmer
can not afford to let the land he idle, so he substitutes some other
crop which can be planted later in the season. Another reason
why rotations are not more generally followed is the prevalence of
root-rot.

The fact, however, that the farmer can not follow a rotation with
the regularity of clockwork does not necessarily imply that he should
not follow any rotation. On the contrary, he should plan a rotation
that will improve the fertility of his soil, reduce root-rot, and other-
wise satisfy his needs; but he should make it so flexible that it may
be modified from time to time, as the conditions warrant, without
detracting from the purposes which it is intended to accomplish.

THE BURNS ROTATION.

The most notable example that has come under the observation
of the writer, illustrating how the agriculture of this region has
developed without legumes, is found in the cropping system practiced
by Mr. James Bums, of San Saba, Tex.

A definite rotation in which there is a total absence of legumes is
rather unusual, if not altogether unique, in the history of south-
western agriculture. It becomes still more exceptional if it has
been followed systematically for a long series of years; yet such a
rotation has been practiced on one of the black-land farms whose
history the writer has studied.

Thirty-two years ago this farm was divided into three equal fields
(fig. 5) and the following 3-year mixed rotation was established,
which has been maintained with consistency to the present time:

1 Shear, C. L., and MUes, G. F. Texas Root-Rot of Cotton: Field Experiments in 1907. Circular 9,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture, 1908.
LCir. 84]

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOH THK BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.
Table 1L — The -i-ycar tnixed roldlion in use on lite Burns farm.

11

30-acre tracts.

Field 1.

Field 2.

Fields.

1908.

Wheat 20 acres.

Oats 10 acres.

Cotton 30 acres.

Corn 10 acres.

Milo 10 acres.

Sorghum lOacres.

1909.

Cotton 30 acres.

Corn 10 acres.

Milo lOacres.

Sorghum.. . . lOacres.

Wheat 20 acres.

Oats lOacres.

1910.

Corn lOacres.

Milo lOacres.

Sorghum lOacres.

Wheat 20 acres.

Oats lOacres.

Cotton 30 acres.

On tliis farm aro kept 30 to 40 head of high-grade Shorthorn
cattle, 10 to 15 Duroc-Jersey hogs, and 100 to 200 chickens. As
soon as the crops are harvested the stock are turned in to glean the
fields. The wheat and oats are grazed until about March 1, when

Fig. .5.— Birfl's-oye view of the three floMs on tln^ Burns farm, where a 3-year mixed rotation has been

in operation for 32 years.

the stock are taken off and the grain allowed to mature. In tliis
manner everything produced is saved and sufficient manure has })een
added to the soil to maintain its fertility.

Owing to the limited rainfall, everything possible is done to con-
serve moisture.* iVfter being broken as early as ]>ractica])lo in
fall and winter the ground is kept stirred until i)lanting time by
the use of a disk and a steel-toothed liarrow. All crops ex(;ept wheat
and oats are planted in rows and at rates of seeding which give
stands about three-fourths as thick on the ground as is customary

» The records of the weather station located on this farm show that the annual rainfall for the period
from 1901 to 1910. inclusive, has averaged 24.0 inches.

ICir. S4 1

12 CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

in a luimid climate. Shallow cultivation (2 to 4 inches) is given
as often as is necessary to maintain a mulch and keep down the
grass and weeds throughout the growing }3eriod of the croi)s.

This rotation has enabled the owner to produce cotton Mith
practically no loss from root-rot (though it is present in all his fields)
and to i)roduce sufficient crops from year to year, regardless of
droughts, to meet his needs. lie has so managed that it has not
been necessary to buy hay, grain, lard, or bacon, and his cash income
has been sufficient to meet all obligations incident to pro\ading
for and educating a family of 18 children.

The chief defect in his rotation is the absence of legumes. None
haA'e been used because in his early experience the owner was
unsuccessful in growing cow^peas and other legumes which are
commonly found in rotations, and he decided that it was useless
to make further attempts. However, in contrast to most black-
land farms, the need for legumes w^as met by a rigid rotation, includ-
ing forage crops and the maintenance of enough stock to convert
the roughage produced into manure, which was returned to the
land. In this way the productiveness of the soil was maintained,
while under the prevailing types of farming it gradually falls. In
a later paragraph it will be shown that the owner of this farm is
now testing several legumes which he plans to use in improxang his
cropping system.

ALFALFA IN SHORT ROTATION.^

The fact that alfalfa is naturally adapted to the black soils when
unaffected by root-rot and that even when root-rot is present it
remains one of the most profitable crops of the region for two or
more years (fig. 6) led up to the idea that alfalfa could be grown
profitably in short rotations with other crops. This was actuall}^
being done in a rather indifferent way by farmers who had been
forced to plow up their alfalfa and follow with grain. In thus
compelling farmers to plow up their meadows in tw^o to five years
root-rot in one respect has served a useful purpose. After the
alfalfa has yielded hay in abundance for three or four years, they
have followed it with corn, cotton, wheat, and oats and secured
increased yields varying from 50 to more than 200 per cent.

On similar soils in the black belt of Alabama, William Munford
planted alfalfa on land that produced an average of not over 18
bushels of corn per acre. When the meadow w^as two years old he
plowed up and planted a part of it to corn, wiiich yielded 45 bushels
per acre, an increase of 150 per cent. Another portion of the same
field was allowed to remain in alfalfa three years and then })1 anted

1 It should be noted that alfalfa to be successful, here as elsewhere, must be planted on land that is fairly
rich in huinus. The most successful farmers either give the land a good dressing of stable manure before
plant ing or turn under a green crop of some kind.

|('ir. S41 • .

CHdPJMNG SYSTEMS FOR TliK BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

13

to coriL which yiehled 55 bushels per acre, an increase of 205.5
|)oi- cent.'

Many of the farmers visited know from experience that the fer-
tihty of the soil is better conserved if a new meadow is planted in
another field whenever it becomes necessary to ])low up the old one
because of root-rot, but there was some confusion as to how to plan
a rotation includinsjj alfalfa.

In order to make it perfectly plain to everyone, a sugj^ested plan,
based on successful practice in use on various black-land farms, is
outlined in figure 7, showing how a IBO-acre farm, 120 acres of

Fig. 6.— Cows grazing on an alfalfa meadow .'i years old near Cleburne, Tex. Root-rot is gradually

reducing the size of the meadow.

which are in cultivation and divided into four 30-acre fields, would
appear each year for a ])eriod of 12 years. This plan may be modi-
fied for any given farm as conditions justify without lessening its value.
It will be observed that the alfalfa remains 3 years ^ in each of the
4-year periods, and in the meantime a 3-year rotation of cotton or
wheat, corn, and oats is in operation on the other three fields. For
convenience wheat or oats occupy each field the year previous to its
being planted to alfalfa or, if the soil is poor, cow[)eas may be used in
])releren(e t<> either wheat or oats. In tliis rotation ample oppor-
tunity is alTorded for controlling root-rot, as resistant crops occupy
the land from two to three years between the alfalfa and the cotton.

" See "A Successful Alabama Piversification Farm," Farmers' Bulletin 310, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,
1907.

» In cases where alfalfa is destroyed before the third year a short rotation of alfalfa, corn, cotton, and
small grain may be used.

ICii. .S4]

14

CKOPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

Where root-rot is exceptionally destructive, leguminous catch
crops such as cowpeas and soy beans should be left out of the rotation
until the disease is checked, but where it appears only on a plant here

^uliLic Mb

ISA

PERMAriEMT
PASTURE

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Fig. 7.— Appearance each year for 12 years of a 160-acre farm, 120 acres of which are devoted to four crops of
30 acres each, in rotation, viz, alfalfa, cotton or wheat, oats, and corn.

and there its effects will be more than compensated for b}^ the benefits
derived from these crops.

ICir. S41

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS. 15

LEGUMES NOW BEING TESTED.

In 1009, owdng to the general interest jnaniiested in the establish-
ment of better eropping systems, it was determined to find if possible
whether or not legumes other than those heretofore tested could be
used for the production of hay and green manure in rotation with
the crops already established.

As up to this time Wiiippoorwill cow^ieas were the only crop of this
kind that had been tried to any considerable extent, it was thought
that possibl}^ some suitable varieties might be found among the many
already in use in other sections or among those that had been intro-
duced from other countries. To determine this (lucstion, the co-
operation of the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations was enlisted,
and a test of all available varieties of annual legumes was begun in
the spring of 1910. Public-spirited farmers in various parts of the
area entered heartily into the scheme and freely gave the use of their
land and services to help solve this problem. Seed of about 25
varieties was obtained and distributed to 16 farmers to be planted
and OTown under the immediate direction of tlie writer.

From the beginning the farmers maintained an eager interest in
the work, and so pleased were they \\ath the results of last season's
experiments that they have determined to incorporate some of the
most promising varieties into their regular cropping systems. Though
none of the legumes proved to be immune to root-rot, some of them
were so slightly affected by it that their value for. forage and as soil
builders was hardly impaired.^ iVmong these were certain varieties
of soy beans and co\vi:»eas. Sweet clover, Florida beggarweed, and
guar 2 were also used. (Figs. S, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13.)

It has been found difficult to obtain a stand of sweet clover in most
sections; its introduction should therefore be attended with some
caution. Florida beggarweed is a new crop in this region; its intro-
duction should also be attended with some caution.

The results of one season's work are by no means conclusive, but
since the tests were made after numy years of observation, study, and
experience in growing cowpeas and alfalfa on a black-land farm,
enough has been learned to show that under orchnary conditions
alfalfa and other legumes may be grown for forage and soil-improve-
ment purposes, if they are included in a properly planned rotation.

The tests will be continued until definite conclusions can be drawn
as to which of the newly introduced varieties are the most satisfactory,
and the conclusions will be published later by the Office of Forage-
Crop Investigations. The results already attained indicate quite con-

1 A single exception to this statement was on J. M. Campbell's farm near Richardson, Tex., where Iron
and Braliham cowpeas and Mammoth soy heans were purposely planted on an old alfalfa meadow which
had lieen destroyed by root-rot, the continued presence of the disease in the soil being well kno\ra. By
the time the crops were ready to be cut for hay , about half of each variety had been destroyed by the disea.se.

s The value of this legume is as yet problematical, and further experiments will be necessary to determine
its utility as a green manure or forage crop for this region.
[Cir. «41

16

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

clusively that there are several varieties which can be used in rehev-
ing the situation which has so far prevailed in the black-land region.

USE OF LEGUMES IN THE ROTATION.

As an example of how the annual legumes may be used in the
cropping systems already estabhshed, let us refer again to the rotation
in use on the Burns farm. The originator of this rotation was one of
the first to begin a test of all available legumes under our direction.

Fig. 8.— Groit cowpeas grown in lyio near Richardson, Tex., on lieavy black-waxy soil. Root-rot was

present, but the damage done was very slight.

Finding several that w^ere very promising in so dry a season as 1910,
he is giving them field trials in 1911 so that in 1912 he ma\'- select for
his use those which suit him best and thereafter modify his rotation
somewhat, as in Table III.

Table III. — Proposed rotatioris, showing possible use of legumes in a cropping system.

Tract.

1912.

191:!.

191

A.

1915

Field 1.

Wheat 15 acres.

Oats 7J acres.

Legumes...

22.J acres.

Com

Milo

Sorghum...

10 acres.

10 acres.

■2\ iu-ws.

Cotton

22J acres.

Field 2.

Legumes... 22^ acres.

Corn

Milo

Sorghum...

10 acres.

10 acres.

2i acres.

Cotton

22i acres.

Wheat

Oats

15 acres.
71 acres.

Field 3.

Corn 10 acres.

Milo 10 acres.

Sorghum... 2^ acres.

Cotton

22i acres.

Wheat

Oats

15 acres.
'y acres.

Legumes

22J acres.

Field 4.

Cotton 22\ acres.

Wheat

Oats

15 acres.
7h acres.

Legumes...

22i acres.

Corn

Milo

Sorghum....

10 acres.

10 acres.

2i acres.

[Cir. 841

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

17

These chancres are expected to produce the money crops— wheat

;ind cotton— on n smaller..ar)ei^. and tlio increased productiveness of

■.■/..■''vtt'i'"^''':

Pig. 9.— Brabham cowpeas ktowti near Hutchins, Tex., in 1910, on black land infested with root-rot.

Fig. 10.— Mammoth soy beans grown on black land near Cleburne, Tex., in 1910. They were sown in rows
3 feet apart and eultivafd. They received practically no rain from planting to maturity. Tioot-rot
was present, but did little damage. '

the soils which it is thought will follow is dei)endcd upon to keep a
larger number of live stock and thus matorinlly enlar<;e the income.

ICir. .84]

18

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

In addition to having one field in legumes, as shown in the diagram,
it is planned to grow cowpeas and soy beans in alternating rows with

■/f"^

Fig. 11.— Guar 3 to 5 feet high, grown in 1910 near San Saba, Tex., with praetieally no rain from planting,

April 22, to maturity.

Fig. 12.— Sweet clover growing along a railway near Sherman, Tex. It is found growing wild in many
places in the black lands between Red River and Temple, Tex.

corn, milo, and sorghum and to plant sweet clover with oats, cutting
both for hay in case the clover is largo enough when the oats are
ready: but in case the sweet clover is too small, the oat crop will be

ICir. S4]

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

19

allowed to mature. In either event the sweet ehiver is expected to
grow again and make either a crop of hay or some grazing b(>i"ore fall.
After the wheat, such legumes as cowpeas, soy beans, beggarweed,
and guar ' will be planted in rows 2 1 to 3 feet apart and so cultivated as
to conserve moisture. The rainfall is so limited and uncertain that
satisfactory results arc seldom obtained from planting broadcast
after grain or between the corn rows at the last cultivation.

MODIFICATION OF A RO-
TATION COMMON IN THE
SOUTH.

A rotation tending to
maintain fertility, in use in
the more humid sections,
is (1) corn with cowpeas
planted between the rows
at the last cultivation, (2)
cotton,- and (3) oats fol-
lowed by cowpeas sown
broadcast. This rotation,
omitting the cowpeas and
often with the oats left out,
is the one that has prevailed
in the black lands from the
be";inning and that has
brought about the decline
in the productiveness of the
soils. In fact, those who
realized the advisability of
including legiunes in the
rotation failed in their ef-
forts to grow them because
of the limited and uncer-
tain rainfall more than from any other cause.

In the last few years, however, many farmers have learned that
they can grow cowpeas ((uite successfully by planting them in alter-
nate rows with corn, or in rows after oats, and cultivating them as
fre(iuently as they would corn. Those who have tried this plan are
well pleased with the results. They have not only produced a cro]) of
cowpeas, but by planting the corn twice as thick in the row as ordi-
narily they have secured as good and in most instances better yields
of corn than from similar areas of the same type of soil upon wliich

' Guar is mentioned on account ot its promise as a soil builder. Its value as a forage crop in this
country is doubtful.
»In many localities this rotation is modified by transposing the cotton and corn crops.

[I'ir. 8-J]

Fig. 13.— Florida beggarweed grown on tlie black land near

Uutdiins, Tex.,in 1910. The plant shown in this figure
was more than 7 foet tall. The beggarweed was planted in
rows 3 feet apart and cultivated. The plat could have been
cut twice for hay. A good crop of seed was produced.

20 CROPPING SYSTEMS FOB THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS.

the corn was planted in the usual manner. Furthermore, in every
instance a better quahty of corn tl^n the average was reported.
With these modifications the rotation, corn and cowpeas, cotton, and
oats followed by cowpeas, becomes applicable over the greater part
of the black-land region.

SUMMARY.

(1) The farmers of the black-land region of Texas are seeking
information relative to cropping systems which will increase and
maintain soil fertility and make tlieir farms more profitable.

(2) The price of black land has increased during the last 40 years
from a very low price to prices ranging from $50 to $200 per acre.

(3) The original productiveness of much of the soil has been
greatly lessened by (1) the presence of a plant disease known as root-
rot, which is especially injurious to cotton and legumes, aiid (2) the
consequent absence of legumes from the rotations.

(4) Though no practical remedy for Texas root-rot has yet been
discovered, its evil efl'ects may be largely overcome (1) by deep fall
plowing, (2) by the rotation of resistant with nonresistant crops, and
(3) by the incorporation of organic matter into the soil.

(5) Legumes generally are not as much affected by root-rot as is
cotton. In a properly arranged rotation alfalfa and a number of
varieties of cowpeas can be grown to great advantage. Tests under
way inchcate that several other legumes will prove to be of great
service to the farmers either as hay or as soil improvers, notably cer-
tain varieties of soy beans.

(6) Alfalfa is killed by root-rot in two to five years, causing many
farmers to decide that it is not a suitable crop for black lands. Expe-
rience, however, has proved that in many sections it pays to grow
alfalfa in a short rotation with grain, allowing it to remain on a field
about three years, or until destroyed by root-rot. and then plowing up
the meadow and reseeding another, to remain a similar length of time.

(7) The yields of wheat, corn, oats, and cotton following alfalfa
in rotation are materially increased.

(S) In a desirable cropping system for a black-land farm the Texas
root-rot is overcome, legumes are grown, the fertility of the soil is
increased and maintained, and the acreages of crops grown are so
arranged that ample crops of each may be produced from year to
year for the needs of the farm.

(9) The rotation should be planned in such a manner that it can
be modified from time to time to meet changes in the weather and
other unexpected conditions without detracting from its value.

(10) On most black-land farms a mixed rotation similar to the one
used by James Burns is most satisfactory, as it enables one easily to
adjust acreages of various crops.

[Cir. 84]

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE BLACK LANDS OF TEXAS. 21

(11) Cowpca.s may be j^rown successfully on the black lands in the
ordinary rotation of cotton, corn, and oats by planting them in alter-
nate rows with the corn, or after the oats in rows, and cidtivatin£r
them two or three times.

(12) Tlie work thus far accomplished is but preliminary to a more
extensive and detailed study of farm-management problems in the
bhick-land belt. The legume tests will be continued as long as may be
necessary in order to arrive at definite conclusions.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, August 15, 1011.

[Cir. 84]

o

B. P_ I. 090. Issued June 20, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 85.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

CROWN-GALL AND SARCOMA.

By Eewin F. Smith,
Pathologist in Charge of Lahoratonj of Plant Pathology.

INTRODUCTION. • '

In a recent bulletin of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United
States Department of Agi'iculture ^ the writer pointed out resem-
blances in crown-gall of plants to malignant animal tumors and
especially to sarcoma. Since the publication of this bulletin further
.study has revealed several very interesting facts. Our observations
show that in method of development this disease is strikingly like
that of certain malignant neoplasms in man, especially those in which
a distinct strand of tumor tissue has been traced from the primary
tumor to the secondary tumor.

There is perhaps no metastasis, in the strict sense of the tenn, but
so far as regards the mechanism of tumor development it is a matter
of minor importance whether the migrating tumor cells separate
themselves entirely from the parent mass or remain connected with
it by means of a tumor strand. The plant body favors the latter
method of development, whereas the rapidly circulating blood stream
in animals favors the former, i. e.. the dislodgment and distribution
of cells. The matter of chief importance is the method of action of
the parasite on the cells of the host.

QUESTIONS UNSOLVED.

In the bulletin mentioned the following subjects were either not
touched upon or left in an inconclusive state :

(1) The question of the presence or absence of the bacteria in the
secondarj^ tumors.

1 Bulletin 213, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, entitled " Crown-
Gall of Plants : Its Cause and Remedy." The edition of this bulletin is exhausted at the
Department of Aj.'riculture. It may be obtained, however, from the superintendent of
documents. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Price 40 cents.
100097° — Cir. 85—11

2 CEOWN-GALL AND SAECOMA.

(2) The relation of the origin of the secondary tumors to the
primary tumor, i. e., whether the new growths result from the inde-
pendent migration of bacteria from the primary tumor to the site
of the secondary tumor or whether the tumor cell itself is the migrant.
That the latter was believed to be the case may be seen from the
second paragraph on page 164.

(3) A comparison of the cell structure of the secondary tumor
with that of the primary tumor.

NEW FACTS.

Having obtained much favorable material for study from inocu-
lations made on the daisy in January of this year, using for inocula-
tion pure cultures of the schizomycete plated from tumors on the
daisy, the answers to these questions are at hand and are confirmatory
of the hypothesis made in the bulletin, viz, that the study of crown-
gall is calculated to throw some light on the origin of malignant
animal tumors.

This study has yielded the following results.

BACTERIA IN SECONDARY TUMORS.

The bacterium causing the primary tumor occurs also in the sec-
ondary tumors. It is not plentiful, but, so far as we have plated,
occurs in about the same numbers as in the primary tumor. Xu-
merous poured-plate isolations and several successful reinoculations
have put beyond question its normal occurrence in these secondary
tumors. It occurs also sparingly in the tissue between tumors. In
other words, we do not have in this disease a cell stimulus begun in
the primary tumors by a parasite and then able to propagate itself
independently of the inciting organism. On the contrary, the
bacteria and the tumor cells occur together both in the primary
tumor and in the secondary tumor mid the one inside the other.
Owing to our inability thus far to stain the causal organism inside
the cells without at the same time staining many confusing granules
or to see it therein under the microscope so as to determine its pres-
ence in unstained sections with certainty, the evidence for this last
statement is indirect, but none the less conclusive. This evidence is
twofold: (a) By the poured-plate method, from the interior of
tumor tissue after surface sterilization we obtain the tumor-produc-
ing schizomycete, and, therefore, it occurs in these tissues; (b) when
such tissues are sectioned and studied under the microscope the ves-
sels and the intercellular spaces, so far as we have been able to ob-
serve, are free of bacteria. Numerous observations made during the
last three months confirm many earlier ones. If bacteria were com-
monly present in the vessels or spaces between the cells (as happens

[Cir. 85]

CEOWN-GALL AND SAECOMA. 3

in many other plant diseases) they ought to be readily visible either
stained or unstained, for, quite unlike the cells, these spaces are free of
all confusing granular matters. By the doctrine of exclusion, there-
fore, the bacteria must be within the cells. The discovery of them in
place is complicated by the fact that they are not very numerous, are
not acid fast, are probably often in the form of involution cells or in
some other form difficult to identify, and are mixed in with numerous
minute crystals, crystalloids, and other granules of the host proto-
plasm, which itself takes bacterial stains readily.

TUMOR STRANDS.

In many instances (we can not yet affirm in all) the secondary
tumors are connected with the primary tumor by a deep-seated strand
or pedicel of tumor tissue. This strand wedges its way through the
interior of stems and leaves, after the manner of a foreign tody,
until in some suitable place, often at a considerable distance from the
primary tumor, it gives rise to a deep secondary tumor, which sub-
sequently ruptures through to the surface of the plant. This off-
shoot from the primary tumor occurs deep in the wood, at the junc-
tion of wood and pith, and may sometimes be seen with the naked
eye, owing to the fact that the chloroplasts in its cells become more
numerous than elsewhere and give to the strand a deep-green color
and because being under great pressure it wells out on cross section
of the stem, something like a cut muscle; at other times the strand is
restricted to a few cells and can be made out with difficulty even
under the microscope, but wherever it occurs in any quantity it is
seen to be totally distinct in its structure from the normal tissues
surrounding it, conforming to the tumor tissue in its histolog}'^, and
can be traced in the one direction to the primary tumor and in the
other to the secondary, and frequently in the course of its progress
from the primary to the secondary tumor we have observed island-
like enlargements, and comparison of these in various stages of de-
velopment show that they are the beginnings of other tumors. Some-
times these enlargements of the green strand have progressed far
enough to push up the normal tissues and show as a swelling on the
outside of the stem; at other times not. Finally, from this strand
we have cultivated out Bacterium tumefaciens^ and reproduced the
disease with the cultures. Frequently the wood in this part of the
stem takes on an increased groAvth.

SECONDARY TUMORS HAVE THE STRUCTURE OF THE PARENT TUMOR.

As might be expected from statements under the previous heading,
" Tumor strands," when the primary tumor occurs on the stem and
secondary tumors subsequently appear in the leaves the structure of

[Cir. 85]

4 CEOWN-GALL. AND SAECOMA.

the leaf tumors is approximately that of the stem. "We have, then,
in place of the leaf traces and loose cellular structure of the ordinary
dorsiventral petiole or midrib, a firm structure consisting of a green-
ish pseudopith (of tumor tissue), surrounded by a cylinder of wood,
beyond which is a cambium and then a bark covered with cork. This
stem structure is sometimes very perfect, although less w^oody than a
normal stem — i. e., of a looser structure — at other times, incomplete
on one side, only a partial cylinder of wood being formed. This
stem structure may develop either in the central leaf trace or in one
or more of the side leaf traces, according as one or the other is pene-
trated by the advancing strand of tumor tissue. All stages of this
conversion have been seen, from petioles which still present their
external form and show only a slight disturbance in one of the
leaf traces to those in which all resemblance to an ordinary leaf has
disappeared, the petiole being displaced by a thick, firm, stemlike
growth more or less circular in cross section and totally unlike the
dorsiventral structure of a leaf. Even in such cases traces of the
unchanged wings of the petiole may be seen sometimes as marginal
appendages of the secondary tumor.

Full details will be given in another bulletin as soon as the illus-
trations can be prepared.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, June 17^ 1911.

[Cir. 85.]

o

Issued August 15, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 86.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE
KLAMATH MARSH EXPERIMENT FARM.

BY IJCAL

-' /

CARL S. SCOFIELD,
Agriculturist in Charge of Western Agricultural Extension,

AND

LYMAN J. BRIGGS,
Physicist, in Charge of Physical Investigations.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1911

4 KEPOKT ON THE KLAMATH MARSH EXPERIMENT.

SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATIONS.

In view of the similarity in appearance between the Lower Kla-
math Marsh and the so-called tnle lands in the delta of the Sacra-
mento and San Joaquin Kivers in California it was deemed advis-
able to follow the same agricultural practices that have proved most

Fig. 1.- — Map showing tlie location of Lower Klamath Lako and Marsh formed liy
lateral overflow from Klamath River, which flows throutrh the northern edge of
the marsh. Klamath River drains Upper Klamath Lake over a hasaltic rock
barrier at Klamath Falls.

suitable in the subjugation of the.se lands and to try some of the crops
that have been the basis for that highly profitable agriculture.

Such temj^erature records as were available indicated that the
Klamath marshlands were subject to low minimum temperatures dur-

[Cir. 86]

REPORT ON THE KLAMATH MARSH EXPERIMENT. 5

iiiir the sumnior months, with the liabilitv of a killinu- frost even in
siimnier. Preliminary examinations of the drained niarshhmd
>hoAved the jiresence of consideral)le quantities of alkaline salts, chiefly
carbonates of sodium, magnesium, and calcium. It was believed at
first that these salts could be washed out without difficulty in the
ordinary processes of irrigation, and the first efl'orts were directed
toward getting the raw tule mat into good tilth. Arrangements
were nuule for liringing to the reclaimed land a supply of irrigation
water from the channel which leads into the swamp from the Klamath
River.

The drainage of the experimental tract had been accomiDlished by
cutting through it open ditches about 5 feet deep and 2 feet wide.
Three of these ditches were run parallel, about 200 feet apart, con-
necting with a head ditch at either end and supplemented by a
dredger cut along one side of the tract. This arrangement of ditches,
together with a wooden flume by which the irrigation water was
brought to the tract, made it possible to try both surface flooding
and lateral subirrigation, the latter being accomplished by keeping
one ditch full of irrigation water and the adjacent parallel ditch
empty.

It was found that the raw tule mat was very tough and hard to
reduce quickly into good tilth. It was successfully plowed by using
a very sharp plow. In order to have at least a small piece of land in
good tilth, the furrow slice was removed from about 1 acre. After
this was done it was found possible to work up the next layer into
verv good tilth for a seed bed.

In the spring of 1910, when the irrigation system had been in-
stalled, a number of grain and grass crops, together with a series of
vegetable crops, were planted ; a considerable number of the crops
being planted both on the land from which the furrow slice had been
removed and on the land that had not been plowed the previous sea-
son, but instead had been thoroughly cut to pieces with a heavy disk.
It was found impracticable to plant crops on the land which had been
plowed but from which the furrow slice had not been removed.
"When this plowed land had been cut to pieces with the disk and
irrigation water was applied in an endeavor to moisten the seed l^ed,
most of the pulverized furrow slice Avas floated up and washed about
by the irrigation stream, so as to make a uniform wetting impossible.
Spring planting on this land was not attempted.

AMien the drainage of the experimental tract was first undertaken
a large number of curbed open wells were dug for the purpose of
observing the rate of recession of the ground water.

"With the beginning of the crop season of 1910 observations were
l>egun as to the depth of the water in these open wells, and samples of
the water were tested from time to time with the electrolytic bridge

[Cir. 86]

6 REPORT ON THE KLAMATH MARSH EXPERIMENT.

to determine the salt content. The necessary instruments were also
installed to observe the air temperature, wind velocity, and the tem-
perature of the seed bed. Samples of the irrigation water were tested
with the electrolytic bridge and composite samples were collected for
chemical analysis. The same was done Avith the drainage water re-
moved from the tract. All of these observations were continued
throughout the crop season of 1910, and notes were made as to the
growth and behavior of the crops planted. As a precautionary meas-
ure, samples of all the seed used in planting were tested to ascertain
their normal germination.

LIST or CHOPS TRIED.

The land which had not been plowed, but which had been thor-
oughly cut to pieces with the disk in the fall of 1909 was planted to
the following crops on April 29: Turkey wheat, barley, Crimean
wheat, oats, meadow fescue, alsike, redtop, sand lucern, timothy, white
clover, and bluegrass.

The land from which the furrow slice had been removed was
planted to the following crops on April 29: Onion sets, onion seed,
radish, lettuce, turnips, cowhorn turnips, mangels, sugar beets, chick-
peas, and Canada peas.

On May 7 on this same plat were planted three varieties of potatoes.

On May 11 two varieties of wheat, one of barley, and one of oats
were planted on the land from which the furrow slice had been re-
moved, and on May 21 on this same plat were planted kafir corn,
sweet corn, and thousand-headed kale.

On May 25 flax and hemp were planted on the same plat.

After a severe frost on June 20 and 21 the following crops were
planted on the land from which the furrow slice had been removed:
Mangels, sugar beets, rutabagas, red beets, radish, kale, Canada peas,
chick-peas, sand lucern, wheat, barley, and oats.

On July 8 there was also planted on the land from which the
furrow slice had been removed one drill row of each of the following:
Meadow fescue, alsike, redtop, sand lucern, timothy, and white clover.

RESULTS OF THE CROP EXPERIMENTS.

The major portion of all the crops planted came up and com-
menced growth in a fairly satisfactory manner, although the seedling
growth was slow in nearly every case. Irrigation water was used
freely on most of the land in an effort to reduce the salt content
by leaching. After passing the seedling stage moi^t of the plants
began to show symptoms of distress, manifested by arrested growth
and yellowing. This was particularly true on the land from which
the furrow slice had been removed. On the land where the tule mat

ICir. 86]

REPORT ON THE KLAMATH MARSH EXPERIMENT. 7

had been cut with the disk and where heavy irrigation was used the
phints, particularly the cereals, made a slightly better growth, but
even there the growth was abnormally slow and weak. A critical ex-
amination of the plants at the time when the arrested growth had
become conspicuous (about the middle of June) showed (hat the
roots were confined to the superficial layer, and that in the few cases
where they had penetrated much beyond the first 3 inches they
were dead and badly corroded. On the nights of June 20 and 21
severe frosts occurred, with the result that all of the tender crops
were killed to th^ ground and nearly all of the others were severely
injured. Immediately after this frost a second planting of the tender
crops was made. The crops from the second planting came up
promptly, but after having exhausted the food supply stored in the
seed these too began to suifer and die, although temperature and
moisture conditions were favorable to growth.

The wheat, oats, barley, alsike, clover, alfalfa, and redtop re-
mained alive throughout the season on the disked land, but none of
these crops made anything like a normal growth, even under the most
favorable conditions it was found possible to provide. A few plants
of both sugar beets and blood beets, as w^ell as some of the potatoes,
survived the season on the land from which the furrow slice had
been removed, this survival occurring chiefly in a few places where
excess quantities of irrigation water were used, but even under these
conditions growth was abnormallv weak.

It became apparent from these experiments that thorough leaching
of the land would be a necessary preliminary to the production of any
of the ordinary crop plants. Indeed, none of the crops in the fore-
going list gave any indication of ability to thrive under the condi-
tions of the experiment.

EXPERIMENTS IN LEACHING THE LAND.

The land planted to crops was irrigated by surface flooding or by
furrows. It was found that on the disked but unplowed land the
water moved readily through the porous supei-ficial layer to the
depth of 4 or 5 inches and drained off into the open ditches on either
side, but there was little evidence of any considerable penetration
below this laj^er. On the land from which the furrow slice had been
removed the water was absorbed so slowly that after heavy flooding
it was necessary- to draw off the water from the check after each
irrigation, even though the ditches on either side of the flooded
tract were kept empty. In other words, the downward and lateral
movement of water into the land was so slow as to make very doubt-
ful the possibility of reclaiming the land by leaching out the excess
of alkaline salts.

[Clr. 8C]

8 REPOKT ON THE KLAMATH MARSH EXPERIMENT.

Early in the season one of the three parallel open ditches was
blocked up at either end and kept filled with irrigation water,
while the adjacent ditch 200 feet away was kept empty. This con-
dition was maintained with but few interruptions throughout the
season from May to October, with the object of leaching out the
excess salts in the land between these two ditches.

Water samples were collected each week from the open wells in
this tract, and the salt content was determined with the electrolytic
bridge, check samples being collected from time to time for chemical
analysis.

At the end of the season samples of water collected at depths of
2, 4, and 6 feet at various points in the subirrigated tract showed
conclusively that there had been no material leaching of the salt
except in the upper foot.

In the latter part of the season an effort was made to leach out the
salt by protracted surface flooding of the land from which the furrow
slice had been removed. Borders were thrown around two checks,
each containing one-eighth of an acre, and each of these two checks
was bordered on two sides by an open ditch nearly 5 feet deep. One
of these checks was kept continuously flooded for two weeks and then
allowed to dry out for two weeks, while the other was flooded. This
flooding process was repeated on each check so that each was flooded
twice for two weeks at a time with an intervening period of two
weeks without flooding. Samples of the subsurface water were
secured at depths of 2, 4, and 6 feet in each of the checks after each
period of flooding and, although an aggregate of 5 feet in depth of
water was applied to each of these checks during two weeks of flood-
ing, it was found that no appreciable lessening of the salt content had
occurred at the depth of 2 feet or below. All of the water applied
to these checks that had not evaporated had apparently seeped out
laterally through the more porous surface layer.

In view of the very light texture of the tule mat and underlying
material, none of which weighs over 40 pounds per cubic foot when
dry, it seems difficult to understand the cause of its relatively high
impenetrability. When saturated this material holds a large pro-
portion of water, it being not uncommon to find samples containing
5 or G parts of water to 1 part of dry material. In other words,
when approaching the saturation point this soil contains 500 or (JOO
per cent of water. Chemical analyses of this subsurface water and
of the tule mat itself show the presence of large quantities of soluble
salts, chiefly carbonates of sodium, calcium, and magnesium; in other
words, lime and black alkali. The tule mat when moist gives a pro-
nounced alkaline reaction to litmus, and the subsurface water on
boiling gives an alkaline reaction to phenolphthalein. In this re-

[Cir. 86]

REPORT OX THE KLAMATH MARSH EXPERIMENT. 9

-pect the Lower Klamath Marsh differs markedly from the tnle lands
of the delta of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Kivers, which are
either neutral oi- slijrhtly acid; particularly in the lower depths.

COMPAmSON WITH OTHER TULE LANDS.

OA^ing to the rank ^Towth of the tule on the Lower Klamath
:Marsh it has been assumed that these lands have the same potential
value as the tule lands in the delta of the San Joaquin and Sacra-
mento Kivers. There are two fundamental differences, however,
between these two tracts:

(1) The lands of Lower Klamath Marsh are formed almost entirely
from organic matter and the siliceous remains of diatoms. Draining
the tract and exposing this soil to the air will result in the rapid
oxidation and disappearance of the organic matter, accompanied by
a marked lowering of the surface. The residual material will
eventually be largely siliceous and will contain little plant food. The
delta tule lands, on the other hand, contain a large proportion of silt
deposited bv floods and do not undergo any marked changes as the
result of drainage, while the silt provides the necessary mineral plant
food.

(2) The delta tule lands are either neutral or slightly acid in their
reaction, particularly iix the lower depths, while the lands of Lower
Klamath Marsh are markedly alkaline. This condition is due to the
presence in the latter case of black alkali (sodium carbonate), the
most injurious of the alkali salts. This salt combines chemically
with the disintegrated organic matter, which is one of the reasons
Avhv it is so difficult to remove bv leaching. A second reason is that
the compounds thus formed are colloidal in character and greatly
retard the movement of water through the soil, behaving in this
respect like particles of colloidal clay.

Black alkali is least harmful under the conditions found in the
undrained marshland: that is. in the presence of submerged organic
matter. A part of the alkali combines directly with the organic
matter, and the remainder is largely converted into sodium bicar-
bonate, which is much less harmful to plant growth. It is under
such aquatic conditions that the tule makes its gi'owth in the Lower
Klamath Marsh, but as soon as the land is drained these favorable
conditions are gone. The sodium bicarbonate is converted into the
harmful carbonate, and as the organic matter oxidizes, all the alkali
with which it was combined is set free. Thus conditions grow
steadily worse in the zone into which the plant roots should penetrate,
while in the drainage zone below the soil remains as impervious as
before.

[Cir. 86]

10 KEPORT ON" THE KLAMATH MARSH EXPERIMENT.

CONCLUSIONS.

(1) The Klamath marshlands on the Lower Klamath Lake have
been formed through the disintegration of aquatic vegetation and
without the deposition of any considerable quantity of rock sediment
or silt. They are therefore lacking in essential elements of fertility.

(2) These swamp lands contain a sufficient quantity of alkaline
salts, chiefly carbonate of sodium (black alkali), to render them
unfit for crop production until these salts are leached out.

(3) On account of the highly impervious character of the marsh-
land, the leaching out of these alkaline salts is rendered very difficult
and appears to be impracticable by any methods at present known.
The expense would exceed the prospective value of the land.

(4) The air-drainage conditions on the Klamath marshlands are
such that low temperatures and killing frosts are likely to occur
exery month in the year, thus limiting the possible agriculture to the
hardier species of crop plants.

Approved :

Ja3ies Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, July 2'2, 1911.

[Clr. 86]

o

Issued SeptembiT 9, IJU.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 87.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPREHENSIVE CATALOGUE

OF BOTANICAL LITERATURE IN THE

LIBRARIES OF WASHINGTON.

BY

YORK

ALICE C. ATWOOD,
Bibliographical Assistant, Office of Tnxonomic and Range Investigations

WASHtNGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICe : 1«11

4847'— Cir. 87—11

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Gallowat.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Tatloe.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.
[Cir. 87]
2

B. P. I.— 673.

DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPREHENSIVE CATA-
LOCUE OF iiOTANICAL LITERATURE IN THE
LIBRARIES OF WASHINGTON.

INTRODUCTION.

Two entalognes stand in the l^urean of Plant Industry library,
one desi^rnated the Plant-Industry Catalogue' and the other the
Botany Cataloofue. To give some idea of the scope of the latter
and of the special features \vhich it presents, in order that its use
by botanical workers may be still further increased and extended,
is the jiurpose of the present circular.

The •• Botany Catalogue," as it is called for want of a better name,
has been develo})ed under the supervision of ISIr. Frederick V. Co-
ville and originated in an attempt, for which he was chiefly respon-
sible, to enlarge and coordinate the collections of botanical litera-
ture in the librai'ies of Washington. The nucleus of the jiresent
catalogue was the botanical part of the catalogue of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture library, to which it forms an extensive adjunct,
especially in regard to literature not included in the Department
collections.

The examination of titles with reference to the cooperative
purchase of books among the difl'erent libraries necessitated some
kind of a check list showing what books were already available and
where they were located. Starting as a mere author list, chiefly used
for the assistance of the Department library in cooperative book
buying, it came to be generally consulted by Avorkers in botanical
lines, and as it grew it became necessary to enlarge its scope in many
ways and to develop a subject catalogue along with it.

THE AUTHOR CATALOGUE.

The author catalogue now consists of about 50.000 entries, includ-
inir botanical works contained in the Ijibrarv of Congress, the
libraries of the Department of Agriculture, National Museum, Smith-
sonian Institution, Geological Survey. Surgeon General's Office, and
the private libraries of Dr. Edward I^ee Greene and Capt. John Don-
nell Smith. The latter library is at ]iresent in lialtiniore. but it is
available to workers in "\^'ashington and Avill eventually form a part
of the Smithsonian library.

[Cir. 87] 3

4 CATALOGUE OF BOTANICAL LITERATUKE.

Proof sheets are received daily from the Libiaiy of Con«ress, from
which printed cards are ordered, comprising additions to the Library
of Congress and the libraries of the Department of Agricnlture and
the Geological Survey, while a large number of typewritten and
hand\yritten cards are added covering additions to the various
libraries for which printed cards can not be obtained and also a large
number of analytical and index entries. From July, 1910, to July,
1911, about 7,000 cards were added to the author catalogue and serial
list, and as many more have gone into the subject catalogue.

INDEX ENTRIES.

While indexing has not been engaged in to any large extent, the
index cards for American botany, issued by the Torrey Botanical
Clubj have been added to the catalogue, and a number oi scientific
serials, principally those published before ISOO, have been completely
indexed. In addition, much incidental indexing has been done upon
subjects of special interest.

SCOPE,

The subject matter represented by the catalogue is much wider in
scope than would be justified by a strict use of the term '• botanical."
The allied subjects of horticulture, tropical agriculture, fibers, gums
and resins, pharmacology, special crops (cacao, cotton, rubber, etc.),
seed adulteration and control, etc., have found their place in the
catalogue, as well as voyages and explorations which touch upon the
botany of a country, or which publish scientific results.

The biogi-aphical and bibliographical sides have not been neglected.
The catalogue is unusually rich in biographies and bil)liographies of
botanists, gathered often from sources not generally consulted.

Bibliographical notes on special works and articles dealing with
dates of publication of works issued in parts also form a viiluable
part of the material in the catalogue.

DESIDERATA.

In accordance with the original intention, the catalogue lias been
used as a basis of comparison in the purchase of botanical literature,
and a list of desiderata has been formed both for works entirely
lacking and for volumes lacking in sets. These desiderata have been
entered on yellow slips designed esi^ecially for the purpose and filed
in the author catalogue, so that the author catalogue not only repre-
sents botanical works available in Washington, but also gives infor-
mation as to those not available and desirable for purchase ])v the
De]:)artment or other libraries interested in the cooperative purchase
of books.

SERIAL LIST.

Many important botanical articles appear in scientific serials or
society publications, and even when a reprint is available it is im-
portant to have access to the original place of publication. At first,

[Cir. 87]

CATALOGUE OF BOTANICAL LITERATURE. 5

a few eiilr'u's for sc'M'iitific serials oi- society publications, as they
chanced to be referred Lo, were added to the author catalogue, but
dniinu the last year the matter has been taken up systematically,
and a separate serial list has been made giving information as to the
location of the sets in the larger libraries of "Washington. The se-
rial list consists of an ali)habetical list, with full cross references, of
general scientific serials and society i)ublications, followed by a
roughly classified list of serials under the headings '• Botanical,"
''Horticultural."' "Microscopical." and " riiarmaceutical.*' Serials
dealing with plant })athol()gv. pomologv, and tropical agriculture are
included under the heading "Horticultural.''

The serial list will be further enlarged and compared with other
libraries in the city and promises to be a valuable adjunct to the

catalogue

ARRANGEMENT.

The author catalogue is arranged alphabetically as a dictionary
catalogue, but editions and translations are arranged chronologically
after the original edition, the original title lieing penciled at the
top of the card in the case of a translation or edition with change of
title. Cross references are made from dilTering titles to the original.
In the case of voyages and explorations of which there have been
a great number of editions or translations, cards for the earliest
edition with the English translation and possibly some other im-
portant editions are filed in the catalogue, and a card giving in brief
additional editions and translations available in the Library of Con-
gress is filed with them. Authors treated as subjects (biography
and bibliography) are found in the author catalogue, not in the sub-
ject catalogue; the same is true of institutions, botanical gardens, etc.

THE SUBJECT CATALOGUE.

The subject catalogue has grown very rajiidly since its inception,
and it is the intention to make it as complete as possible. It repre-
sents a fcAv subjects for which no cards appear in the author cata-
logue, such as atlases and genei'al bibliographies of countries, entries
which are of use only on the subject side : on the other hand, only a
portion of the Torrey Club index cards have as yet had subject en-
tries made for them.

ARRANGEMENT.

The subject catalogue is a semiclassed catalogue, divisions and sub-
divisions of large subjects being made within the alphabetical ar-
rangement. Xames of genera are arranged under th(^ family, the fam-
ily names a])i)earing in their regular alphabetical place. Small geo-
graj)hical divisions are arranged under the country to which they be-
long, as, for example, under " Germany " will be found " Germany —
Bavaria," " Germany — ^funich." '* Germany — Pi-ussia," " Germany —
Khine Valley." The T'nited States is ai-rauged first under the United
States as a whole, then nndei- large divisions, as "New England,"
" Southern States," " Rocky ^Mountain Region," etc.. and then under

[Cir. 87]

6 CATALOGUE OF BOTANICAL LITERATUKE,

the individual States. Towns, cities, counties, etc., appear under
their respective States, as in the case of Germany. In the same man-
ner as the United States are arranged Great Britain, Canada, West
Indies, Chinese Empire, Australia, and other similar divisions.

Some of the other large subjects are also subdivided, as " Mate-
ria medica," by countries; "Plant names," by languages; "Plant
anatomy" and "Plant morphology," by names of families; "Plant
nutrition." by names of plant foods used ; "Alkaloids in plants," by
names of the individual alkaloids. Examples might be multiplied
indefinitely.

GUIDES.

To facilitate the use of the subject catalogue a special system of
guide cards has been adopted. Blue guide cards are used for main
subjects standing in regular alphabetical order and but!' guide cards
for subdivisions of subjects. It will, of course, be understood that
guides are not supplied for every subject, only the more important
being so indicated. The systematic headings can be readily distin-
guished, as all names of genera are in red, while all other headings
are in black.

EDITIONS AND TRANSLATIONS.

Cards are not multiplied for editions and translations in the sub-
ject catalogue. A card for the original or earliest edition is inserted,
with a not'e referring to the author catalogue for other editions and
translations. The only exception to this rule is in cases Avhere the
recent edition is the most important, as is the case with textbooks
and reference books. In such an instance the card for the latest
edition is filed, with a note referring to the author catalogue for
earlier editions.

BELATION OF THE BOTANY CATALOGUE TO THE PLANT-
INDUSTRY CATALOGUE.

When the Botany Catalogue was installed in the Bureau of Plant
Industry library it soon became evident that there was some un-
necessary duplication in the subject catalogues of the Plant-Industry
Catalogue and the Botanv Catalogue. It was then decided to cut out
of the Botanv Catalogue the suljject of phuit pathology with its
allied subjects, which is so fully and carefully treated in the Plant-
Industry Catalogue; in the same manner were treated such subjects
as sugar cane, sutrar beet, sugar-producing plants, and nitrification.
The Plant-Industry Catalogue turned over to the Botany Catalogue
all subjects dealing with systematic botany, plant life histoiw, general
horticulture, and such special crops as the Botany Catalogue had
already treated more or less fully. Cross references in the subject
catalogue refer to the headings used in the Plant-Industry Catalogue.
The li'iie of demarcation between the Plant-Industry Subject Cata-
lojTiie and the Botanv Subject Catalogue may not seem to have l)een
dniwn very logically, but it is the result of the varying use of the

[Cir. 87]

CATALOGUE OF BOTANICAL LITERATURE. 7

two catalogues, and appears to be practical if not in accordance with

The catalogue is only a tool for the use of the worker in botanical
literature ami the desire is to make it as complete and workable a
tool as is possible. The daily use of the catalogue constantly suggests
iniproveuieuts in both plan and execution, so that its present useful-
ness is limited only by the amount of time and labor that can be
devoted to it.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, July 2^, 1911.

[Cir. 87]

Issued October 9, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 88.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE PICKING AND HANDLING

OP PEANUTS.

LIBRARY

r^EW YORK
f iOTANICAL
BY QARDEN.

W. R. BEATTIE,

Assistant Horticulturist.

9122 ° Cir. 88 H WHSHINOTON : government PHINTING office : 1911

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Tayloe.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

ICir. 88]
2

B. P. I— 679.

THE PICKING AND HANDLING OF PEANUTS.

INTRODUCTION.

The growth of the peanut industry in the United States during
the last 15 or 20 years has been so great that few people realize
its present importance. During this period of expansion few
changes in the methods of handling have been made and there is
now need for improveiiient all along the line, from the producer to
the consumer. The problem which confronts the cleaner and dealer
is to place upon the market peanuts that are clean and free from
insect or other injury. Under the pure-food laws peanuts that are
weevil-cut or improperly cleaned are subject to seizure if offered for
interstate trade. In the future, buyers of peanuts will discriminate
against goods that are badly broken or otherwise damaged.

While the primary trouble lies in the methods employed in picking
peanuts from the vines, there is need for general improvement both
on the farm and in the cleaner's establishment. Farmers are not
exercising proper care in the harvesting and curing of the crop;
this results in placing upon the market too great a percentage of
mildewed and damaged nuts. As peanuts come from the farms they
too often contain dirt, stems, cotton stubble, and rubbish of all
kinds, rendering necessary a system of docking of weight which
leads to general dissatisfaction. The machines used for picking
peanuts from the vines break many of the pods, rendering the ker-
nels or " peas " subject to the ravages of insects during the summer.
It is a well-lmown fact that if the shell of a peanut is not broken
or cracked the peas will keep almost indefinitely. The present situa-
tion does not present any serious difficulties, but merely shows the
need of a general improvement in all branches of the industry in
order to place the work entirely above reproach.

Many of the growers of peanuts hold their crop through the winter
months and on into the summer as a speculation. Very often the
farmer does not have a suitable place to .store his peanuts and heavy
losses result from this practice. The first step in improvement will
be to provide machinery that will not break or injure the peanuts and
then to secure better methods of storage and handling. It is a fact
to be deplored that cars and warehouses used for the transportation
and storage of peanuts are often not as clean as they should be, and
in the past very little attention has been given to the matter of pre-
venting injury from insects, rats, and mice.

[Cir. 88] 3

4' THE PICKING AND HANDLING OF PEANUTS.

HARVESTING AND CURING PEANUTS.

In the sections where the bunch peanuts are gi'own the work of
stacking and curing is as a rule quite well done and very few are
damaged. The greatest injury is found where the runner pea is
grown, and this is due primarily to the heav}^ growth of vine, with
the pods borne all along the stems, rendering it difficult to stack the
vines without a part of the peas being exposed to the weather. This
exposure causes the mildewing of the pods and frequentl}^ the mold-
ing of the peas, which may be avoided by more careful stacking and
proper capping of the stacks with peanut vines or hay. In some sec-
tions the farmers pick the peas from the vines before they are
properly cured, causing them to mold in the bags or in the storage bins.

PICKING PEANUTS FROM THE VINES.

So long as the bulk of the peanut crop was picked from the vines
by hand very little trouble was experienced with the breakage of the
pods. The scarcity of labor has compelled the adoption of machin-
ery for picking peanuts, and many of the machines have proved far
from satisfactory in that they break the shells.

Peanut-picking machines are of two classes: (1) Cylinder ma-
chines similar to the ordinary grain thrasher and (2) picking ma-
chines Avhich remove the peas from the vines by means of a woven-
wire screen. The cylinder machines break a large number of pods
A\hen run at a high rate of speed, and since the w^ork of picking is
paid for by the bag there is a tendency on the part of the owner of
the machine to run through as many as possible. If the machines
are not overfed and the cylinder is run at a speed not exceeding 370
revolutions per minute the damage w^ill not be great.

The picker type of machine does not break any appreciable number
of pods and its work is almost equal to that done by hand. The fault
of all these machines is that they do not properly clean the peanuts ;
the manufacturers, however, are now providing a more complete
cleaning process.

Every farmer who hires his peanut crop picked should see that the
machine does proper work, that the pods are not broken, and that the
peas are well cleaned. The most successful operators of thrashers
and picking machines do not crowd the w^ork and are content with
turning out 60 to 75 bags a day. It should be borne in mind that
peanut-picking machinery is still more or less in the experimental
stage and that many improvements remain to be made. For the
present the demand is for quality of work, although there is no rea-
son why the capacity of these machines should not be increased.
Considerable breakage of the pods comes from trampling upon them
around the thrasher, and this can largely be avoided by keeping the
loose and shattered pods well cleaned up while the work is going on.

[Cir. 88]

THE PICKING AND HANDLING OF PEANUTS. 5

STORAGE OF PEANUTS ON THE FARM.

The farmer's safeguard in the matter of the prices obtained for his
peanuts lies largely in his ability to hold at least a portion of his
crop through the winter or even until the new crop is partly grown.
Farmers should be prepared to hold their crop for a time, rather than
place it all upon the market during the autumn months when prices
are o-enerallv at their lowest. In order to do this suitable storage
facilities are necessary.

Frequently the bags of peanuts are simply piled in an open shed
or in the barn, where they are not properly protected. Occasionally
the bags are simply stacked upon the ground in the field without
even the protection of a canvas cover. A building for the storage
of peanuts need not be expensive, but may be constructed of rough
boards with an iron roof and the whole raised a little above the
ground for dryness. All openings for ventilation should be screened
to keep out mice and rats; insect injury will not prove serious pro-
vided the peanuts have not become broken in picking or handling.

In many cases it has been found most convenient to store peanuts
in bags. In no case should the bags be piled too high— that is,
more than seven courses— and alleyways should be left every third
or fourth row. Some growers follow the practice of storing in cribs
or bins, where the peanuts are piled loosely until they are wanted
for the market, at which time they are bagged. The method of stor-
age on the farm matters very little provided the surrounding condi-
tions are suitable. The less the peas are handled the better on
account of the breakage.

STORAGE OF PEANUTS IN LARGE WAREHOUSES.

It has been the custom for a few cleaners and warehousemen to
buy up peanuts during the autumn and to store them in warehouses
holding from 20,000 to 100,000 bags each. Many of these ware-
houses are cheap frame structures. Eecently some very fine storage
houses have been built for this purpose. The type of building which
seems to be best adapted to the storage of peanuts is four or five
stories in height, with heavy brick walls and either concrete or mill
construction floors. For best results the distance between floors
should be but 10 or 11 feet. It has been found most economical not
to pile the bags so high that two men can not handle them without
climl)ing upon the bags that are already placed. Walking over the
bags is sure to break a large number of the pods, and even the piling
of the bags to a great height will crush the shells in the lower bags.
It is recommended that occasional alleyways be left between the
rows of bags instead of the solid method of piling now practiced.
It is customary to have an elevator near the entrance to the ware-
tar. 88]

6 THE PICKING AND HANDLING OF PEANUTS.

house, and the openings between floors should be provided with iron
doors to prevent the spread of fire.

Provision should be made for the fumigation of these peanut
warehouses at least twice during the sunmier. With this end in view
the windows should be so arranged that they may be opened from the
outside; ventilators in the roof should be provided with means of
closing them during fumigation, and then for opening them to air
out the house afterwards.

TEANSPOE-TATION OF PEANUTS.

There can be no doubt that many peanuts are broken and injured
by careless handling. Catching hold of the corners of the bags for
handling may break the pods. Jamming the bags with trucks or
carts also causes considerable breakage.

A practice which no doubt will be discouraged in the future is the
mixing of old goods with new in shipping. Many farmers hold over
a few bags from one year to another and frequent I3' these are sold for
the current season's crop by simply placing a bag here and there in a
car of new peanuts. These old goods are often damaged and should
at least be kept separate from the new stock. The branding of
every bag with the name of the grower and the j'^ear that the peanuts
were grown would solve this difficulty, especially if required by law.
The mixing of old and new goods is not always traceable to the farm,
but more often to the merchant's storehouse where peanuts from a
large number of farms have been brought together.

THE CLEANING OF PEANUTS IN FACTORIES.

As the cars arrive at the factory the bags of peanuts are weighed
and placed in storage until wanted for cleaning. As a rule no pre-
cautions are taken to guard against broken or "weevil-cut" goods.
It would be feasible to provide a tight room near the entrance to the
warehouse into which the peanuts could be run as they come from
the car and given a fumigation before being placed in storage or
cleaned. This would apply especially to peanuts shipped during the
summer months, after "weevil" damage has begun. It would not
be practicable to separate the broken peanuts from the perfect ones
as they come from the cars except in cases where the breakage is very
great. All badly broken stock should be manufactured early in the
season before there is any danger of injury.

It is highly important that warehouses and cleaning establishments
be kept clean and free from everything that will harbor " weevils."
Screenings and other refuse, commonly sold for hog feed, should be
removed to a building located some distance from the warehouses
and factory. Old bags should not be piled in the factory but should
be k6pt in a separate building.

[Cir. 88]

THE PICKING AND HANDLING OF PEANUTS. 7

CARE OF SHELLED GOODS.

It is customary for tlie cleaners to stack the bags of shelled peanuts
in a corner of tlie factory, where they are exposed to the dust. By
this method the shelled peanuts are liable to attack by insects coming
from infested stock in the factory. The finished goods should be
stored either in a specially constructed building or in a room tightly
built to keep out dust. By this method it would also be possible to
give these goods a fumigation before shipment.

Shelled peanuts are subject to injury from moisture or from ex-
treme heating. The storage room should be dry and should be so
located that the heat from the engines or boilers will not affect it.
This storage room for shelled goods should be arranged for con-
venience both in handling the bags from the filling machines and in
loading them into the cars.

CLEAN CARS.

It is customary to reload cars that have been emptied of farmers'
stock peanuts with cleaned goods ready for the market. Very often
the cleaning of these cars is left to laborers and the work is not
properly done. More care should be taken to sweep these cars prop-
erlv and if thev are infested with insects they should be fumigated.

SUMMARY.

The difficulties which now confront the dealers and handlers of
peanuts are due largely to careless methods on the farms. The
trouble results mainly from the improper methods of curing the crop
and the breakage of the shells in thrashing. Greater attention should
be given to the housing and care of peanuts after their removal from
the vines. This applies both to storage on the farm and in ware-
houses. More careful attention should be given to the condition of
cars used for the .shipment of cleaned and .shelled peanuts. There
are no .serious problems involved, but a general improvement in the
methods of curing and subsequent handling of the crop is needed.

Approved :

James Wilson.

8ecretar\j of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, August 2Jf, 1911.

[CAT. 88]

o

Issued January 6, 1912.

U. S. DEPART^NIENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 89.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

AN IMPROVED METHOD Ot' ARTIFICIAL POLLINA

TION IN CORN.

BY ~.JJ>f3^,

G. N. COLLINS AND J. 11. KEMPTON.

1 Tlil 7-1 2 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1912

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beveuly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Taylor.
Editor, .T. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

1!. V. T. — 709.

AN IMPROVED METHOD OF ARTIFICIAL POLLINA-
TION IN CORN.'

INTRODUCTION.

Tn the breeding- of corn, if accurate records regarding parentage
are to be kept, all pollinations must be done by hand. In the
merhods of study now popular many pollinations are self-pollina-
tions ; that is, it is necessary to place the pollen of a plant on the silks
of the same plant and protect the silks from all other pollen. By
the methods usually employed it is impossible to be cei-tain that all
foreign pollen is excluded. This uncertainty prevents the placing
of confidence in the ancestry of plants that exhibit unexpected
characters.

From Avhat is known of reversions and mutations the appearance
of characters assumed to be absent from the parents, though of rare
occurrence, must still be considered. A technique so faulty that the
evidence on this point can not be relied upon removes all hope of
touching some of the most vital problems in heredity and renders all
data regarding the absolute purity of the germ cells valueless. It is
believed that the method here described makes it possible to place
the same confidence in the self-pollination of corn as in plants which
are not wind-pollinated.

METHODS USUALLY EMPLOYED.

The usual method of making self-pollinations is to inclose the tas-
sels and young ears in strong papei- bags. When pollen has accu-
mulated in the bag surrounding the tassel and the silks have emerged
from the young ear. the bag containing the pollen is removed. The
ear is then uncovered, the pollen dusted over the silks, and the bag
replaced on the ear. During the operation the silks are necessarily
exposed for a shoil tini(> to any j^ollen that may be floating in the air.
A number of refinements have lieen devised by different operators

^ For the oricinal siifrgpstion of tho motliod hore described, the writers? are indebted to
Dr. L. J. r.riKgs. of the Bureau of I'lant Industry.

[Cir. S9] 3

4 ARTIFICIAL POLLINATION IX COEN.

to reduce the chances of the silks receivinir foreign pollen. The
most effective is that proposed by Roberts.^ In his experimental
field the tassels are all bairged before they begin shedding pollen;
there is thns no pollen free in the air of the field, except the
small quantity that escapes Avhile making the hand pollinations.
The quantity of free pollen is furtlier reduced by an ingenious
method of applying the pollen by means of an insect-powder "gim"
or spring blower. By this method the pollen is distributed so per-
fectly that but a small part of the amount nsually required is suffi-
cient. Another precaution nsed by careful operators is to wash
their hands in alcohol after each pollination in order to destroy the
vitality of any pollen that might remain on the hands.

EXTENT OF CONTAMINATION.

Regarding the amount of foreign pollen that gains access to ears
pollinated in the ordinary way, East states that in 53 ears bagged
and the bags not removed 14 seeds developed and in 25 ears manipu-
lated as in pollinating but to which no pollen was applied 20 seeds
v>'ere formed." These figures are not very different from results ob-
tained bj^ the writers in using the same method. When lOG ears were
bagged and the bags allowed to remain, 10 seeds were produced on
5 ears. The operation of pollination applied to 23 ears, but without
the application of pollen, produced in all 1 seed. Our somewhat
more fa\orable results are probably the residt of bagging the ears
at an earlier date.

DESCRIPTION OF THE NEW METHOD.

The method here proposed involves the use of strong paper tubes
about -i inches in diameter and 40 inches long. Longer tubes are
sometimes necessary for very tall plants, and for short plants a piece
may need to be torn off. To apply the tubes, one end is pushed over
the tassel and wired firmly at a point just below the upper end of the
last leaf sheath. The other end of the tube is then brought down
and passed over the young ear and securely wired. (Fig. 1.) In
pulling the tube down to the ear the tassel will be bent to one side in
such a way that as soon as the anthers open the pollen falls down the
tube and comes in contact with the silks. To protect against any
foreign pollen which may be present on the tassel or ear when bagged,
the tubes should be put in place four or five days before the silks are
expected to appear. The greatest difficulty in applying the tubes is

1 Roberts, H. F. A New Method of Corn rolliuation. American Breeders" Magazine,
vol. 2, no. 1, 1911, p. .j5.

2 East, E. M., and Ilnyes. II. K. Inheritance in :Maize. r.ullitin liJT, ("onnecticut Agri-
cnltur.il Experiment Station, 1011, pi). .".O-Ml.

[Clr. 89]

ARTTFTCIAL POLLINATION IX COHN.

to allow for the elongation of the stalk above the ear. Unless guarded
anainst, this elongation will break the stalk at the base of (lie tassel
and then push through the paper, making an opening where foreig-n
pollen can enter. To prevent this breaking of the tube, two extra

I'k;. 1. — Corn plnnt. showins motliorl of u«inK pnper tube to insure self-pollinntion.

folds are taken where the paper is cemented, making a strip an inch
or so wide composed of four thicknesses of paper. In adjusting the
tubes this strip is placed on the upper side, causing the tube to form
an even curve instead of bending sharply at one point.

[Cir. Sft]

G

ARTIFICIAL POLLINATION IN CORN.

Since the tubes remain in place until all danger from foreign
pollen is past, provision must be made for the increasing size of the
ear. This can be done by using a coiled instead of a straight Avire
to fasten the tube to the ear. The coiled wires are easih' made by
Avrapping the -wire around any small cone-shaped object, like tiie
point of a lead pencil. The advantage of the cone-shaped coil over
a cjdindrical coil is that the tension necessary to straighten the coil
is nicely graduated when a cone-shaped coil is used. (Fig. 2.)

Some experience is necessary to apply the tubes properly, and the
exact manner has to be varied slightly for the different types of
corn. When the ears are well exserted before silking it has been found
best to bring the leaf just below the ear up against the outside of

the tube and pass
the wire around it;
otherwise, it is dif-
ficult to keep the
tube from slipping
off the ear as the
stalk elongates.
The most difficult
cases are those
where the exsertion
of the ear at silking
is small, In such
cases it is necessary
to pass the wire
around the stalk as
well as around the
leaf. "\Mtli varie-
ties that have large
husk leaves it is Avell to remove them by cutting off the tips of the
husks at a point beyond the tip of the young ear; otherwise, the
silks become entangled in the mass of leaves and tlie pollen fails to
gain access to all.

While this method can be generally applied only to ears that are
to be self-pollinated, it works equally well for artificially crossing
two plants that are adjacent in the same or neigliboring rows. In
testing Mendelian ratios it will be found convenient to arrange the
planting Avith the hybrids betAveen the parents. It Avill thus be pos-
sible to apply the method to self-pollinations and crosses betAveen
the hybrid and the parents.

Whei-e the tubes are used it Avould seem that the oidy possible
source of contamination Avould be from pollen on the tip of the ear
oi- husk leaves at the time the tube Avas applied. To test this possi-

[Clr. 80]

Fig. 2. — Cnilod wiro nsod in nttachinjr the paper to the ear.

ARTIFICIAL POLLINATION IN CORN. 7

bility. the tassels were reinoxed from four plants and tubes ai)i)li(Ml
in the customary way. Befor'* applying: the tuht' a quantity of fresii
pollen Avas placed on the tip of the ear. No seed was formed on anj^
of these ears, the time that had elapsed before the silks emerged hav-
ing been sufficient for the pollen to lose its \ italily.

In work with bagged plants the writeis have been greatly annoyed
by the frecpiency with which the ear grows through the bag during
moist weather. This annoyance is entirely avoided by the use of
tubes, A further source of error when bags are used, unless the
wiring is carefully done, is the possibility of the silks becoming ex-
p(»sed by growing down along the husks and coming out between
the w ire and the ear. \\ Ih'ii tubes are used, the small diameter of the
tubes and the fact that the elongation of the ear is unobstructed
causes the silks to grow straight up the tube.

liegarding the time necessary to apply the tubes, it was found
that with practice oO tubes could be applied in an hour. Since all
the work is completed in the one operation, the saving of time as com-
pared with the system of bagging is very considerable.

Api)ro\ed :

Ja.aii:s ^^'lLSo^■,

iSccretanj of Ayilcultui-e.

A^'ASI1I^•GT{)N, D. C., Xoroitber 10, 1911.

|Cir. MtJ

o

Issued February 6, 1912.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 90.

B. T. GALLOWAY, c:hief of Bureau.

SUGGESTIONS TO i^OTATO GROWERS
ON IRRIGATED LANDS.

BY

L. C. CORBETT,
HorticuUurist.

21974° — Cir. TiO — 12 Washington : government printing office : 1912

[Cir. 90]
2

BlREAl OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Bevkui.v 'P. (Ialloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Tayi-or.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James R Jones.

I'.. 1'. I.— 714.

SUGGI'STIOXS TO POT.VTO GROWERS ON
IRRIGATED LANDS.

^

INTRODUCTION.

Cou-sidering- the difficulties which have confronted potato growers
on the irrigated hinds of western Nebraska and northeastern Colorad<
during the hist year, it Avouhl seem wise to pay special attention to
such questions as the preparation of land, the time and manner of
irrigation, the seed supply, and the rotation of crops on lands de-
signed for potato culture.

PREPARATION OF LAND.

Since the potato is a deep-rooted crop and forms its tubers beneath
the soil, it stands to reason that it requires a much deeper seed bed
than will be nece.ssary for cereal crops. In fact, the preparation for
potatoes should be as deep and as thorough as for sugar beets, whether
in the irrigated or in the humid region. If a preparatory crop such
as alfalfa or clover is to be turned under for potatoes, it is advisable
to plow this crop under in the fall and to compact the soil suffi-
ciently to make it a good I'etainer for water, but not so smooth that
it will blow. Befoie planting in the spring the land should be made
fine to a depth sufficient to admit of planting and cultivation. If
unusually dry the land should be irrigated before the crop is planted.
If the normal precipitation has occurred during the winter and
spring months, tlie crop may be planted without irrigation. It is not
advisable, however, to plant the crop in dry, hot earth and to imme-
diately irrigate it. Irrigation should precede rather than follow the
])lanting. If the crop does not grow rapidly after planting, irriga-
lidii sliould Ik> i)iMvidc(I from time to time as the appearance of the
crop and the condition of the soil would indicate; a dark-green or
blackish color shows a lack of moistu.re on the part of the plants,
while light-green or yellowish tints indicate the presence of too much
moisture. The ])lant should be kept growing at the maximum rate
from the time it appears above the ground until it has completed its
season's work, and cultivation supplemented by irrigation must be
relied upon to keep the plant working.

4 SUGGESTIONS TO POTATO GROWERS ON IRRIGATED LANDS.

METHOD OF IRRIGATION.

The Avater for iiTigiitino- potattes is best appjied in every other
furrow, the furrows bein*;; narrow and deep and the water so applied
that the ground will not be saturated above the point wJiere the
tubers are formed. This will induce the formation of a deep instead
of a superficial root system. In order to accomplish this the rows
must be sufficiently wide apart to admit of throwing up broad high
ridges, with narrow deep furrows between, in which the water can be
led in a small stream for a Icng period rather than by means of a
large stream flowing only for a short time. The successive irriga-
tions should be carried on in alternate rows; the second irrigation
should be in the rows not used by the first, and the third in the rows
used during the first. Cultivation should follow irrigation as quickly
as the condition of the soil will permit, but as soon as the tubers have
made their growth, usually about September 1, water should be
Avithheld so that the soil will dry and the crop ripen in proper condi-
tion for harvesting.

After the croj^ has been harvested it is wise to rake and burn all
refuse matter. Vines allowed to decay u.pon the land tend to i)er-
petuate any disease that may have been present upon the crop during
the PTOwinff season. Tliere is little fertilitv in the vines, and the
danger of contaminating the following season's crop by harboring-
disease is greater than the value of the vines for manurial purposes.

A good winter treatment would be to plow the land deeply and
allow it to remain in a rough condition during the winter in order
that it may hold all the snow which may fall and rapidly absorb the
rains. Rough earth will not blow as badly as that which is smooth.

SEED.

As a rule, seed from a distance does not do so well the first year
in any given locality as home-grown seed. For this reason it is advis-
able each year to bring in sufficient seed to grow a seed patch large
enough to supply all of the tubers necessary for planting the next
year's crop. By this method new seed will be available, and it will
have had the advantage of one year's growth in the home locality and
will not have the disadvantages that arise from repeated reproduction
on lands frequently used for potato culture.

KOTATION" OE CROPS FOR POTATO CULTURE.

Throughout the eastern United States and upon the irrigated lands
of the AVest it has been the prevailing practice to grow potatoes upon
lands which have previously grown a leguminous crop, such as clover
or alfalfa. These crops supply organic matter in abundance and at
the same time provide the necessary amount of nitrogen for the potato
crop.

[Cir. 90]

SUGGESTIONb TO POTATO GROW K.ES ON THRHiATED LANDS. 5

After careful observations of the l)eliavi(ti- of the ( ro[) on irrigated
soils, particiilarl}' on those of a retentive nature, it is believed that
more satisfactorv results will be obtained bv following a somewhat
modified rotation in wjiich the leouniinous crop is plowed under
for a cereal crop, such as corn, which is given clean cidtivation,
and the cereal cro]) is followed by the potato crop. If corn is
not grown in sufficient quantity to bear this relation to the rotation,
oat or Avheat stubble might be used instead. The decaying organic
matter produced by jjlowing under alfalfa or clover would then be
removed far enough from the potato croji to allow complete decom-
position of the organic inattei- and a slight AvithdraAval of nitrogen
by the cereal croj).

On some of the lands where the alfalfa-potato rotation has been
carried on for a number of years, the growers sa}^ that it is necessary
to raise a crop of sugar beets from time to time when the land gets
too ri.'h for potatoes. It is believed that this observation is very
pertinent to the success of the potato indnstry in the irrigated section
and, although alfalfa must always form the main cro[) of any rota-
tion system in this region, a greater i]se of cereals, particularly corn,
would pro\e an advantage in connection with ]iotato culture.

UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS IN 1911.

The condition.-! which have prevaihnl in western Xebraska and
northeastern Colorado during the last crop season have been such
as to induce very extraordinary behavioi- on the part of the potato
l)iant. The hot. diy Aveather wliich occurred early in the season
tended to weaken the jootato plants and make them backward in the
jiroduction of tubers. The delay in in-igation until the plants
showed signs of decided need of water produced a check in the
plants. When the Avater Avas ai)plied it brought about conditions
unfavorable for the growth of the potatoes, but A'ery favorable to
the development of di.sea.se. Diseases Avhich are usually present, but
which only manifest themselves later in the sea.son. Avere during the
present year moved forwai'd to sucli an extent tliat instead of lessen-
ing the crop to a very slight extent, as is the usual occurrence, they
came early enough to practically pi-event the development of the
crop.

If normal conditions obtain next season, it is not likely that there
will be a recurrence of the troubles Avhicli haA'c caused so nuich loss
during the present year. It is belicA'-ed. hoAveA-er. that should the
season of 1012 prove to be a repetition of that of UU 1 the aboA'e
precautionary suggestions, if carefully folloAved. Avill in a great
measure serve to overcome losses.

[Cir. nO]

6 SUGGESTIONS TO POTATO GROWERS ON IRRIGATED LANDS.

SUMMARY.

Cultivate the soil dwplv, making' a deep seed l)ed. Watch care-
fully the needs of the plants and irrigate as often as necessary,
using a minimum quantit}^ of water and a maximum amount of
cultivation. Provide deep furrows for irrigation, so as to stimu-
late the development of a deep rather than a shallow root sj^stem
in the plants. Use clean seed. Clear the fields of diseased vines
and rubbish at the close of the harvest season and use eveiy device
knoAvn to induce a rapid, continuous, healthy growth in the plants
from the time they appear above the ground until the crop is made.

Approved :

James Wilson.

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, December 4, 1911.

ICir. 90]

fyniS PUBLICATION may be pro-

-*- cured from the Superintendent of

Documents, Government Printing Office

Washington, D. C, at 5 cents per copy

Issued February 20, 1912.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 91.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE NEMATODE GALLWORM ON POTATOES AND
OTHER CROP PLANTS IN NEVADA.

Lii:

BY

»>-> 1 /.NIC •
C. S. SCOFIELD, OAKOEW.

Agriculturist, Western Agricultural Extension.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1912

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

CUef of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Taylor.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Cleric, James E. Jones.
[Cir. 9J]

2

B. P. I.-72f|.

THE NEMATODE GALLWORM ON POTATOES AND
OTHER CROP PLANTS IN NEVADA.'

INTRODUCTION.

During the seasons of 1910 and 1911 there occurred in certain irri-
gated ])otato-growing (Ustricts of Nevada an outbreak of a ])otato
disease known locally as the eelworm. Particular attention was
attracted to the ravages of this disease because several carloads of
potatoes shipped from Nevada into California during the winter of
1910-11 were condemned by certain county horticultural commis-
sioners of California and were returned to Nevada to be disposed of
elsewhere. A recurrence of the disease in the season of 1911 and the
sliipment of infected potatoes into California resulted in the issuance
l)y the State Commissioner of Horticulture of California of an order
establishing a quarantine against all potatoes shipped into that State
from the counties of Lyon, Churchill, and Washoe, in the State of
Nevada.^

Since California markets have afforded the chief outlet for the
potatoes grown in Nevada in excess of local needs and since pota-
toes have been a very profital)lo crop in certain irrigated districts
in Nevada, the closing of California markets to their potatoes has
been severely felt by Nevada potato growers. The outbreak of
the so-called eelworm disease or nematode gallworm disease in
these Nevada potato fields has been so severe and the results so
disastrous as to warrant bringing together the available information
concerning this disease as it affects potatoes and other crop plants,
for the assistance of the affected districts in Nevada. Some of this
information may be applicable also to other sections of the country,

' Owing 1o a severe outbreak of a potato disease in certain irrigated districts in Nevada, caused by the
nematode Helerodera radicicola, there has been an urgent demand for information as to the cause of the
disease, the probable extent of its spread, and the possible remedies. In order to meet this demand for infor-
mation a committee was appointed, consisting of Dr. N. A. Cobb, Technologist, Prof. L. C. Corbett, Horti-
culturist, r<r. W. A. Orton, Pathologist, and Mr. C. S. Scofield, Agriculturist, all of the Bureau of Plant
Industry, to bring together such available information as would be most useful to the potato growers and
others concerned. While the present interest in this nematode is due to its attacks on potatoes, it should
be clearly imderstood (1) that the same nematode is parasitic on many other important crop plants, where
it may cause damage, and (2) that this is but one of a number of species of parasitic nematodes. It is
important to keep these facts in mind to avoid serious mistakes in dealing with the present problem m
Ne\-ada and similar problems that may occur elsewhere. — B. T. Galloway, Clticf of Bureau.

* For further details in rcfen^ncc to this quarantine order, see Monthly Bulletin of the State Commissioner
of Horticulture of California, vol. 1, December, 1911, pp. 26-30; and also the same publication for January,
1912, in which a modification of this order was published.

29196°— Cir. 91 12 3

4 NEMATODE GALLWORM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA.

for the same nematode which has caused the potato disease in Nevada
is widely distributed throughout the United States and is causing
every year much more damage than is generally understood.

It is the purpose of the present publication to give some information
concerning the parasite which is the cause of this potato disease,
briefly describe its life liistory, indicate some of the sources of infec-
tion and methods of transferring the parasite from one place to
another, and suggest remedial measures for combating the disease in
Nevada.

It is of the utmost importance to those concerned to act intelli-
gently in dealing with the present situation in Nevada.' The potato
crop is one of tlie most profitable crops at present produced on the
irrigated lands of Nevada. When not injured by the gallworm the
potatoes are of very high quality and usually command a higher
price in California markets than potatoes from any other section.
It is important, therefore, to prevent the further spread of this
parasite in the potato-growing sections of the State and so to reduce
its numbers where it now occurs that it will cease to be a serious
pest. This can be accomplished through first locating all of the
infested fields and then devoting these fields to the production of
crops upon which the nematode can not live. This location of
infested areas will require very thorough inspection of all the fields
which have been used for potatoes within recent years. Such an
inspection to be thorough must be made by examining the roots of
plants that are susceptible to the attacks of this species of nematode.
The inspection should go still farther and include a critical examina-
tion of all fields on which it is proposed to plant potatoes. The
nematode gallworm is parasitic on so many plants that it may
easily live in the soil for many years if plants which it can attack
are present.

A critical inspection of the irrigated lands of Nevada will probably
show that the nematode gallworm occurs only in small and restricted
areas. If these infested areas are definitely located and ]Mecautions
are taken to avoid carrying the worm to other fiekls where it does
not now occur, and if at the same time these infested fields are
devoted exclusively to crops which can not harbor the parasite, it
should be possible in a few ye are to reduce its numbers to a point
where it will cease to be a factor of importance.

CAUSES OF THE POTATO DISEASE.

The so-called eelworm or gallworm disease (also called "root-
knot") is caused by a minute nematode worm {Heterodera radicicola
(Greef.) Mtill.). Figures 1 and 2 show the two sexes of this worm
enlarged to illustrate various features which are so small as to be

[Cir. 91]

NEMATODE GALLWORM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA.

almost invisible to the naked eye. The mature female is nearly pear
shaped, as shown in figure 1 , being less than a luillimeter in length,
more often about three-fourths of a milhmeter long, the body cavity

being occuined b}^ eggs and lar-
va'. The male is a slender, thread-
like worm, from 1 to 1.5 milh-

meters in length (see fig. 2) . Tlie
development of the female takes
place within the underground tis-
sues of tlie host plant and its
presence in these tissues is indi-
cated by enlargements or mal-
formations. Figure 3 show^s a
potato which is badly infected
with gall worms. The skin is
roughened and broken in patches.
Fig. i.-Femaie of the nema- Not all infected potatoes show

the same symptoms. Often tlie
gallworm is found in potatoes of
which the skin is nearly smooth,
and in such cases the presence
white spots showing approx- ^j ^j^^ ])arasite can be detected

imately tlio natural size of -i

only by cutting the potato. In
the infected tubers there is usu-
alh^ a ring of darkened tissue just
under the skin, and a microscop-
ical examination of this tissue
^vill reveal the i)resence of the mature females and the region of the worm

\_ 1 11 1 J.1 showing blind

young larvae. In figure 4 are showm the larvae and the
eggs of the gallworm as seen through the microscope
from a preparation made from a diseased potato.
One of the eggs seen in figure 4 is shown still further
enlarged in figure 5.

LIFE HISTORY OF THE GALLWORM.

todo gallworm (JJeterodera
radicicola) magnified So di-
ameters: a, Mouth; 6, spher-
ical sucking bulb; c, c, ova- '
ries, as seen through the
body wall; d, anus; e, small

jitesp

lately

these worms. They are
usually wliite. It is gener-
ally not difficult to isolate
them in water by breaking
open the galls containing
them. (After N. A. Cobb.)

Fig 2.— The adult
male of Helerodera
radicicola, or gall-
worni: /, Worm
in profile view; //,
head of the same,
more highly mag-
nified; ///.middle

The larvae of the gallworm upon hatching from the
egg, which liatching sometimes occurs within the body
of the parent, ultimately escaj)e from the liost ])lant
and live for a period in the surrounding soil. Tlicse
larva;, although verj' active, have but little power of
progressive locomotion, and the spread of infection
from place to place must depend upon the transporta-
tion of infested soil or infected plants. wSoon after emerging from
the parcMit and tlic tissn(> of tlie liost plant these larvse'seek other

[Cir. 01]

showing

ends of the sexual
organs; IV, pos-
terior extremity.
The drawings
were prepared
from stained speci-
mens, examined
in carbolic-aeid so-
lution.

a, Lips; fi, oesoph-
ageal tube; c, medi-
an bulb; d, excre-
tory pore; f , spear;
/, intestine; g,
blind ends of tes-
ticles; h, testicles;
/, spicula; J, rudi-
mentary bursa; k,
anus, (.\fter N.
A. Cobb.)

6

Js^EMATODE GALLWOBM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA.

roots aiid bore their way into the plant tissues by means of a spear-
like structure, wliich is protruded from the mouth. They feed upon
the cell sap of the host plants.

After fertihzation takes place the females begin reproduction by
forming eggs within the body. These eggs are laid at the rate of
from 10 to 15 a day, and it is estimated that one female may lay as
many as 500 eggs. After completing the egg-laying process the female

dies, the male having died

fertilizing

the

Fig. 3— Potato infected with the gallworm. This shows
the rough character of the surface, which indicates the
presence of these worms. The knobs, or warts, are often
much more strongly developed than in the above. Gall-
worms in seed potatoes are particularly dangerous, for if
infected potatoes are used for seed the land wll l)e inocu-
lated. If infected potatoes are used as food, the refuse
parts should be cooked or destroyed. Otherwise they
may spread the disease. (After F. B. Headley.)

soon after
female.

The worm lives from one
season to the next, either in
the egg stage or in the larval
stage within tlie host plant.
The life of the individual
worm is short (only a few
weeks), when temperature
and moisture conditions are
such as to favor growth.'
It is possible, therefore, to
greatly reduce the numbers,
if not to exterminate the
worm entirely, by keeping
the infested land free from
plants upon which the worm
can feed.

SOURCES OF INFESTATION.

The gallworm discussed in
this paper is one of a large
number of species of nema-
tode worms. This particu-
lar species occurs very gen-
erally throughout the southern United States. In many sections it
is found in such large numbers as to be a serious pest to many crop
plants, such as the peacli, the fig, cowpeas, cotton, and many vege-
tables. It may be transported from place to place on any of these
plants which it infests or in soil from infested fields. Probably the
most common method of transporting the worm is through tlie ship-
ment of nursery stock and of pota toes. The distribution of the worm

. Additional information concerning the life history of this parasite, with a list of susceptible Plants and
details of experiments in controlling the nematode in the southeastern United States may be found m
Bulletin 217 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, entitled "Root-Knot and Its Control, by T).. Ernst A-
Bessey, issued November 21, 1911.
rCir. 01]

NEMATODE GALLWOKM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA. 7

from field to field in any jiarticular district may be accomplished by
carrying soU on agricultural im])lcments, on the feet of animals or
men, or by transplanting })lants from one field to another. In fact,
there are so many ways in which infestation can be accomplished
that the greatest precautions should be used to prevent the (Ustribu-
tion of infested earth or plants into uninfested areas. The careless
disposal of garbage containing infected potato peelings or the spread-
ing of manure from yards where infected roots or tubers have been
used as stock feed may transport the worm and develop serious
infestation.

Fig. 4. — Microphotopraph of the eggs of the gallworrii and the young
worms just hatched, taken from a potato. This appearance is often
seen in microscopic preparations made from infested areas of roots.
(After F. R. Ileadley.)

All classes of nureery stock, including strawberry plants, tomato
plants, and small fruits, should be examined with great care if they
are to be set in fields which it is desired to keep free from this parasite.

UNINFECTED SEED POTATOES ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL.

In attempting to control this disease it is, of course, absolutely
essential to plant uninfected j)<)tatoes as seed. It is not enough to
be sure that the j)otatoes planted do not show superficial evidences
of the disease; it sliould be determined beyond doubt that there is
absolutely no infection present. Tliis can best be assured by securing

K'ir. 91]

8

NEMATODE GALLWORM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA.

clean and healthy seed from fields where a critical inspection shows
that the disease has not been present.

All culled potatoes from the field should be examined, for even
when disease is present the bulk of the crop may be unaffected.
The gallworm does not occur in the potato-gro^^^ng districts of the
Northern States, particularly North Dakota, Minnesota, Wiscon-
sin, and Maine. Seed obtained originally from these States and
grown on fields that are free from the gallworm should be safe to
use in planting other uninfested fields. Too much stress can not
be laid upon the importance of securing for ])lanting
potatoes which are uninfected and in planting them
on uninfested land.

LOCALIZATION OF INFESTED AREAS.

The practical ])roblem which confronts the potato
growers of Nevada is the location of all fields which are
mfested with tliis parasitic nematode. The present
indications are that the nematode infestation is by no
means general in irrigated land. The nematode has
probably existed in some of the older irrigated lands
of the State for many years, but there is much new
land being put under irrigation in Nevatla, which it
seems probable is entirely free from this worm. If all
of the infested areas can be located by a critical inspec-
tion, it will be possible to produce potatoes in large
quantities on uninfested land and devote the infested
land to crops which are resistant to the parasite.
There are probably some fields in the State which
have been devoted to potatoes during the last year or two on which
the parasite does not occur, and from these uninfested fields seed might
be secured. It would be much safer, however, to obtain seed from
the Northern States, such as Minnesota, Wisconsin, or North Dakota,
with which to plant new land, rather than to risk the infestation of
the new land with local seed. But it will be impossible to proceed
intelligently in combating the ravages of the gaUworm until the
infested areas have been located, so that the danger of infestation, not
only by means of potatoes but in many other ways, can be fully
ascertained.

SUSCEPTIBILITY OF OTHER PLANTS.

In view of the fact that the gallworm is parasitic on many plants
other than potatoes, it is important not to foster the ])a]asite by the
culture of plants which are subject to its attacks. The following is
a list of some of the plants which are readily and seriously attacked
by the gallworm and which should never be grown on infested fields

ICir. 91]

:ioo

Fig. 5.— Newly de-
posited egg of the
gallworm. These
eggs are distinctive
featiues of the nem-
atode disease. They
occur in large num-
bers, as shown in
figure 4. (After N.
A. Cobb.)

NEMATODE GALLWOEM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA.

or transi:)lanted into iininfested land from any land that may possibly
be infested:

Beets, carrots, celery, cucumbers, e<?gplant, lettuce, muskmelon, pumpkin?, pota-
toes, salsify, squash, tomato, watermelon, (;lover, cowpeas, rape, soy beans, catalpa,
cherry, elm, peach.

The followinji; are subject to attaek by nematodes and, although
these plants are not themselves hable to serious injury, they should
not be planted on infested soil for fear of keeping the gallworm alive:

Alfalfa, vetc-h, sweet clover, asparagus, cabbage,
cauliflower, garden peavS, horseradish, strawberries,
kale, Lima beans, onions, radish, spinach, sweet
potatoes.

A

Fig. 6.— Roots of peach, showing en-
largements caused by the gallworm.
Dr. Neal, investigating this disease
in 18&8, expressed the opinion that
large niunbers of peach trees in the
southern United States had been
killed by the gallworm. In short,
agriculturists, seedsmen, nursery-
men, and general merchants should
be specially cautioned against rear-
ing, buying, or selling trees, plants,
or tubers which show any swelling
on the roots except such as are well
known to be natural to them. (After
J. C. Neal.)

Fig. 7.— Roots of grape (Black Ham-
burg), showing enlargements
caused by the gallworm. The
total damage to various crops
wrought by the gallworm amounts
annually to an enormous sum of
money. (After J. C. Neal.)

Fig. 8.— Roots of weeping
willow, showingenlarge-
ments caused by the
gallworm. The worm
thrives in the moist
sandy soils favorable to
the growth of most wil-
lows. (After J. C. Neal.)

The following plants are, so far as known, seldom or never affected
by the gallworm and may be used on infested land with the expecta-
tion of greatly reducing the numbers of the worms, particularly if
the land is at the same time kept free from w^eeds and other plants
wliich may be attacked :

Barley, oats, wheat, rye, corn, sorghum, milo, kafir, timothy, and redtop.

In view of the importance of recognizing promptly the presence of
tliis nematode, the accompanying text figures are presented to show
some of the malformations on the roots of different plants resulting
from nematode attacks.

[Cir. 9i]

10

NEMATODE GALL.WOEM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA.

In. figures 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 are shown the results of gallworm injury
on tlie peacli, tlie grape, the willow, the fig, and cotton. These plants
are all distinctly susceptible to gallworm injury and may serve to
indicate the presence of tliis worm if it occurs abundantly in the soil.
Figure 1 1 shows the enlargements on the roots of a cowpea caused by
the nematode. These enlargements are characteristic and need not

Fig. 9.— Roots of the fig,
shovring enlargements
caused by the nema-
tode gallworm. The fig
is very susceptible to
the attacks of this para-
site and, though when
the roots are severely
infested the tops may
continue to grow when
conditions are favor-
able, in times of drought
or in cold weather the
diseased plants suffer
severely. (After J. C.
Neal.)

Fig. 10. — Roots of cotton, showing en-
largements caused by the gallworm.
Owing to the wide prevalence of this
worm in the southeastern United
states, the aggregate annual damage
whiich it causes on cotton is very large,
though not generally appreciated.
(After George F. Atkinson.)

Fig. U.— Roots of the cowpea,
showing enlargements caused
by the gallworm. With the
exception of one variety (the
Iron cowpea) tliis plant is very
susceptible to the gallworm,
and the use of susceptible va-
rieties as green-manure crops
in peach orchards and in rota-
tions just preceding cotton in
the South is to be avoided.
(After J. C. Neal.)

be confused with the nodules caused by the nitrogen-gathering bac-
teria wliich inhabit the roots of this plant. The nodules caused by
the nitrogen-fixing bacteria are small and spherical and are attached
to the side of the rootlets, whde the nematode causes the swelling of
the root itseK. Figures 12 and 13 show the effect of the attack of
the gallworm on red clover and also the worm as it is found in the roots.
In figure 12 the enlargements on the roots are shown, while in figure
13 the sections of the root show the presence of the gallworm larva\
Figure 14 shows the enlargement caused by the gallworm on the roots

[Cir. 91]

NEMATODE GALLWORM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA.

11

of sugar eano. Many plants of the grass family are practically im-
mune to tliis parasite, as has already been indicated. Figure 15
shows the distortion and erdargement of the roots of the tomato
caused by -the gallworm. One of the dangerous sources of infestation
of new land is through the transplanting of tomato plants grown in
hotbeds, where conditions favor the development of the gallworm,
and a careful inspection should be made of all tomato plants set in
uninfested soil. Hgure 16 shows the enlargement of the roots of the
radish caused by the gallworm. This quick-growing vegetable may
be used to advantage as an indicator to determine whether or not the

Fig. 12.— Root system ol a young red-
clover plant, with swellings caused
by the gallworm. These enlarge-
ments should not be confused with
the beneficial root nodules caused by
nitrogen bacteria nor with the dis-
ease known as crown-gall. (After
B. Frank.)

Fig. 1-3. — I. Longitudinal section of root tip of
red-clover plant, showing a young gallworm
(Heferodera radkicola) embedded in the tissues.
(After B. Frank.) //. Longitudinal section of
root tip of red-clover plant, showing four j'oung
gallworms (Heterodera radicicola) in the tissues.
(After B. Frank.) III. Longitudinal section of
root of red-clover plant, near the tip, showing
enlargement caused by the gallworm (Helerodera
radicicola) and a portion of the young worm.
(After B. Frank.)

nematode occurs in any particular soil, though it would be unsafe to
assume that a soil was free from nematodes if these enlargements
were not conspicuous on the roots of the radish. Figure 17 show^s a
distortion of the parsnip caused by the gallworm, wdiile figure 18
shows the same condition on salsify. Figures 19, 20, and 21 show
the effects of the gallworm on the roots of the okra, cucumber, and
lettuce.

POSSIBILITY OF ERADICATION.

So far as known there are no effective means of completely eradi-
cating the gallworm from infested fields. It has been fountl practi-
cable to eradicate it from the soil of greenhouses, hotbeds, and cold

[Cir. 01]

12 NEMATODE GALLWOEM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA.

frames by methods of sterilization with steam or chemicals; but such
methods are too expensive for field application. Where the gallworm
occurs in fields, its subjugation can bo accomplished onl}' by slower
methods. In some cases it may be possible to flood land with irriga-
tion water and keep it submerged for a period of several months, and
thus destroy the living nematodes and the eggs; but in view of the
fact that nematodes are usually more abundant on light sandy soils
than on heavy soils such protracted flooding is not often practicable.

It may also be possible in some cases to keep
the infested field in clean fallow long enough
to starve out all the nematodes: but this is
hardly practicable in any region where the
soil is light and subject to wdnd erosion.

Fig. 14. — Roots of sugar cane, show-
ing enlargements caused by the
gallwoiTn. This worm is common
and destructive in the Tropics.
Many plants of the grass family re-
sist the disease. (After N. A.
Cobb.)

Fig. 15.— Roots of tomato, showing enlargements caused by the
gallworm. Tomatoes sometimes suffer severely from this
disease. (After George F. Atkinson.)

CROPS SUGGESTED FOR INFESTED AREAS.

Probably the best means of combating the nematock^ is b}- plant-
ing crops which are not subject to its attacks. Such crops as corn,
sorghum, wheat, rye, oats, and barlo}^ are among the most promising
for this purpose. Corn and sorghum are particularly desirable, be-
cause they permit clean tillage, and thus all weeds and other plants
on which the nematodes might live may be kept out. It should be
particularly noted that the sugar beet is susceptible to the nematode
and should not be ])lanted on fields known to be infested.

fCir. !)n

NEMATODE GALLWOEM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA. 13

SUMMARY.

During the seasons of 1910 and 1911 there has been a serious
infestation of certain potato fields in Nevada caused by a nematode
fralhvorni known as Heterodera radicicola. This has resulted in hin-
dering the marketing of Nevada potatoes in California, where the
crop has been sold heretofore.

Fig. 16.— Radish show-
ing root Piilarf;('inents
caused by the gall-
worm. Care sliould
be taken not to con-
fuse these enlarge-
ments with those of
clubroot, a disease oc-
curring on cabbage,
turnips, and related
plants. (After J. C.
Neal.)

Fig. 17.— Parsnip at-
tacked and deformed
by the gallworm. This
disease attacks the
roots of hundreds of
other kinds of plants.
If such roots are used
for food the refuse
should be cooked or
destroyed. Such ma-
terial can not be intro-
duced into New South
Wales and other pro-
gressive States. (After
N.A.Cobb.)

Fig. 18.— Roots of salsify,
showing enlargements
caused by the gallworm. A
number of foreign countries
have legislated against the
introduction of plants and
farm produce infested with
this disease. (After George
F. Atkinson.)

The parasite causing the disease is a very small unsegmented worm
wiiich invades the roots of many different plants, causing malforma-
tions and often seriously hindering the grow^th of the plants. The
nematode multiplies very rapidly under favorable conditions. The life
cycle may be completed within a few^ weeks and each female may
lay as many as 500 eggs.

The nematode may be carried from place to place in the roots of
Hving j)lants, in potatoes, on soil on the roots of nursery stock, or
with potted plants. It may also be carried from one field to another
in earth on farm implements or in irrigation water. Manure from
yards where diseased roots or tubers have been fed may carry the

(Clr. 91]

14 NEMATODE GALLWOEM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA.

worm, and garbage
containing peelings
of diseased potatoes
is also a prolific
source of infestation.
The use as seed
of any infected
potatoes is to be
strongly condemned.
No effort should be
spared to locate all
infested fields in a
district where the
nematode is known
to occur, and seed
potatoes should be
secured from fields
known to be unin-

ease are to be found in the fested or, better still,
root enlargements. (After „ . ■,

3. c. Neai.) fi'om a rcgiou where.

Fig. 19.— Roots of okra, show-
ing the enlargements caused
by the gallworm. The nem-
atodes producing this dis-

Fig. 20.— Roots of cucumber, showing en-
largements caused by the gallworm.
Nearly all other common garden plants
are similarly attacked. There are many
thousands of the worms in the nodules
upon such a root system. (After Kati
MarcLnowski. )

because of adverse climatic
conditions, the nematode
is unknown.

A thorough inspection
should be made of all fields
in each district where the
nematode is suspected to
occur, and all infested fields
should be devoted to crops
which the nematode does not attack. There are
many plants besides the potato which are susceptible
to nematode injurj^, and these should never be
planted or allowed to grow in fields where the gall-
worm is found. There are a number of crops that are
not attacked by this parasite, and these only should

Fig. 21. — Roots of lettuce, showing
enlargements caused by the gall-
worm. Many plants are killed
in the seedling stage liy the
gallworm. (After Kati Mar-
cinowski.)

fCir. 91]

NEMATODE GALLWORM ON POTATOES, ETC., IN NEVADA. 15

be grown on infested fields until the nematode is practically starved
out.

It is very diflicult to eradicate the nematode completely when it
is once well established in a field, but its numbers may be so reduced
by the use of immune crops that susceptible crops may be grown
again without serious injury.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, February 10, 1912.

[Cir. 91]

o

Issued March 9, 1912.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 92.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE CONTROL OF COTTON WILT AND

ROOT-KNOT.

BY

LIBRARY
rsEW YORK
BOTANICAL

aARi>efH.

W. A. ORTOX, Pathologist,

AXD

W. W. GILBERT, Assistant Pathologist,
Cotton and Truck Disease and Sugar-Plant Investigations.

WASHINGTON ; GOVERNMENT PRIMTING OFFICE : 1912

31117°— 12

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Gallcjway.
Assistant Chiif of Bureau, William A. Taylor.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

tCir. 92]
9

U. v. I.-7:i,-).

Tin- COXTROL.OF COTTON WILT AND

ROOT- KNOT.

INTRODUCTION.

General attention should be called to the spread of two diseases
which seriously injure cotton, particularly on sandy land. These are
cotton wilt, or "black-root," and root-knot. They already occur in
scattered localities from North Carolina to Texas and are estimated
to cause an annual loss exceed-
ing 810,000,000. There are
thousands of acres of land
already so infested that ordi-
nary varieties of cotton can
not be grown, and the area
enlarges each year.

In addition to the loss of
crops this land has depreciated
in market vahie; it costs more
to cultivate on account of the
weeds and grass that spring
up after tlie cotton dies, and
the farmer must often use it
for crops less profitable than
cotton.

This situation is the more
unfortunate because it is un-
necessary. These diseases may
be controlled by the means
pointed out i'.i this circular.

HOW TO RECOGNIZE COTTON
WILT.

"When plants wilt suddenly

,11 11 „ 1 £ 11 Fig. 1.— A young cotton plant dying from wilt.

or the leaves yellow and fall ^ i . -

without apparent reason, the wilt is to be suspected. (Fig. 1.) If
a freshly wilted ])lant is pulled and the inner wood of the stem or root
is found blackened (hg. 2), the disease is almost certain!}' wilt.

Tlie trouble begins in May and June and continues to develop
throughout the season. Its first appearance in a fichl is Hkely to be
in small spots, whicli enlarge each season until considerable areas
[Cir. o-.'] 3

4 THE CONTROL OF COTTON WILT AND EOOT-KNOT.

are affected. Beyond the places where the cotton is killed, dwarfed
or stunted plants occur. Some plants remam alive in the worst
areas, and by selection from such individuals resistant varieties
have been developed.

Cotton wilt is more full}^ described in Farmers' Bulletin 333,
entitled "Cotton Wilt," which will be sent free upon application to a

Fig. 2-— Cross sec-
tions of cotton
stem. showing
browning of
wood caused hy
the wilt fungus.
(Natural size.)

Fig. 3.— Roots of cotton, showing en-
largements caused liy the galhvorm.
Owing to the wide prevalence of this
worm in the southeastern I'nited
States, the aggregate annual damage
which it causes on cotton is very large,
though not generally appreciated.
(After George F. Atkinson.)

Fig. 4.— Roots of okra, show-
ing the enlargements caused
by the galhvorm. The nem-
atodes producing tliis dis-
ease are to be found in the
root enlargements. (After
J. C. Neal.)

Senator, Representative, or Delegate in Congress, or to the Secretary

of Agriculture.

HOW TO RECOGNIZE ROOT-KNOT.

Wliere root-knot occurs* with wilt the injury from the latter is
(Teatly increased. Root-knot itself does not show on the above-
ground parts of the plant except through its mdu'ect injury, and hence
is frequently overlooked.

It is desirable that the farmer know with certainty whether there
is root-knot in his land. As a test, okra, tomatoes, or cantaloupes
may be planted and the roots dug up after midsummer and examined
for swellings or galls. If these are found, a rotation of plants immune
to root-knot should be started to get rid of the pest. (See p. 7.)

[Cir. ftU]

THE CONTROL OF COTTON WTLT AND ROOT-KNOT,

Root-knot causes a kuotliko oiilar<2;onu'nt of the roots, varjano; in
size from a ])inliea(l to a lien's egg. The galls on cotton are small,

Fig. 5.— Roots of cucumber, shov/i;:g en-
largements caused l)y the gallworm.
Nearly all other common garden plants
are similarly attaclced . There are many
thousands of the worms in the nodules
upon such a root system. (After Kati
Marcinowski.)

Fig. 7.— Roots of the cow-pea,
showing enlargements caused
by the gallworm. With the
exception of one variety (the
Ironcowpea) this plant is very
susceptible to the gallworm,
and the use of susceptible va^
rieties as green-manure crops
in peach orchards and in rota-
tions just preceding cotton in
the South is to be avoided.
(AfterJ.C.Neal.)

^^^asff^'

Fig. 6.— Roots of lomato, showing enlargements caused by the
gallworm . Tomatoes somet imes suffer severely from this disease.
(After George F. Atkinson.)

on okia larger, and on cucumbers and tomatoes frequently of great
size, as shown in figures 3, 4, o, and 6. Ordinary cowpeas are

rrir. 02]

6

THE CONTROL OF COTTON AVILT AND EOOT-KNOT.

Fig. 8.— Female of the nema-
tode galhvorm (Ilcterodera
radkicola) magnifled 85 di-
ameters: a, Mouth; 6, spher-
ical sucking bulb; c, c, ova-
ries, as seen through the
body wall; (f. anus: e, small
whitespots showing approx-
imately the natural size cf
these worms. They are
usually white. It is gener-
ally not difficult to isolate
them in water by breakmg
open the galls containing
them. (After X. A. Cobb.)

very much subject to root-knot (fig. 7), and experience lias shown
tliat when a farmer has observed that his cotton wilts worse after a
cowpea crop the cause is almost always root-knot.

For a complete discussion of
root-knot, its cause and control,
see Bulletin 217 of the Bureau
of Plant Industry, entitled
"Root-Knot and Its Control."

IMPORTANT FACTS CONCERN-
ING WILT AND ROOT-KNOT.

Cause. — Wilt is caused by a
parasitic fungus, a minute
threadlike organism, which en-
ters the roots from the soil and
plugs the water-carrvnng vessels
of the root and stem.

Root-laiot is caused by minute
eelworms, or nematodes, which
bore into the roots. (See figs. 8
and 9.) The irritation caused by
these worms results in enlarged
growths of the root at the point
of attack.

Plants attacked. — The cotton-
wilt fungus attacks only cotton
and okra. There are very simi-
lar wilt diseases of tlie cowpea, watermelon, tomato, and
other crops, but they are not communicable to cotton.
The root-knot nematode attacks a very large number
of plants and spreads freely from one to another. A
few ])lants are immune; see list on page 7.

Duration of infection. — The wilt fungus lives many
years in the soil. Rotation of crops affords only slight
relief.

The root-knot nematode may be starved out by two
to four year rotations of crops on which it can not live.
Fertilizers and fungicides ineffective. — Neither cotton
wilt nor root-knot can be prevented by the use of kainit,
salt, phosphate, or other fertilizers; nor by sulphur,
lime, or other fungicides applied to the soil. Stable
manure in some cases affords a degree of temporary
rehef from wilt.

B elation to soil. — Both wilt and root-knot are mainly confined to
sandy or light loam soils. Clay soils are but seldom infected.

[Cir. 92]

Fig. 9.— The adult
male of Heierodera
radkicola. or gall-
worm: I, Worm
in profile view; II,
head of the same,
more highly mag-
nified; ///, middle
region of the worm
showing blind
ends of the sexual
organs; 71', pos-
terior extremity.
The drawings
were prepared
from stained spec-
imens, examined
in carbolic-acid so-
lution.

a, Lips; b,
oesophageal tube;
c, median bulb; d,
excretory pore; e,
spear;/", intestine;
g, blindendsoftes-
ticles; Ji. testicles;
i, spicula; /, rudi-
mentary bursa; fc,
anus. (After N.
A.Cobb.)

THE CONTROL OF COTTON WILT AND BOOT-KNOT. 7

Ml a lis of (lisirihiiiion. — \ViJt is spread by direct growth through
the soil, by cuhivation, by drainage water, by cattle, by manure,
and in other ways not always explainable. No attempt to check it
has ever succeeded.

Koot-knot is generalh' brought to a farm on figs, peaches, or other
plants purchased, and after its introduction it is propagated cliiefly
by growing ordinary cowpeas, which are quite susceptible.

Varietal r(.<<istance. — Varieties of cotton resistant to wilt have
develojied. Tlio only successful method of control appears to lie
along this line. Kesistance to root-knot may be secured by future
breeding, but at present this disease must be controlled by proper
rotations.

Wih and root-knot generall}' occur together. Most cases of
"black-root " consist of such mixed infections and require a rotation
to be })racticed before resistant varieties will give their best results,

THE CONTROL OF ROOT-KNOT BY CROP ROTATION.

The ]>rinci]iles on which rotations for the control of root-knot
are based are the use of crops immune from attack and, as far as
po.s.sible, tliose which return a profit, the building up of the fertility
of the soil, and, furthermore, the eradication of all weeds subject
to root-knot. Rotation and diversification of crops are of funda-
mental importance to southern agriculture ever3^"here and become
absolutely necessary wliere the root-knot nematode is present.

The rotations necessary are of a special character, as indicated
below :

CROPS IMMUNE TO ROOT-KNOT.

Barley.
Beggarweed'.
Brabham cowpea.
Com.

Crab-grass.
Iron cowpea.

Peanut .

Rye.

Velvet bean.
Wheat.

Winter oats.

CROPS SUSCEPTIBLE TO ROOT-KNOT.

Alfalfa.

.Vsjiaragns.

Bean.s.

CantaloupH.

Celery.

Clover.

Cotton.

Cowpea.s (all except Iron and Brabham).

Cucumbers.

Figs.

H-U:'.<2]

Mulberries.

Okra.

Peaches.

Soy beans.

Sugar cane.

Sweet potatd

Tobacco.

Tomatoes.

Vetch.

Watermelon.

8

THE CONTROL OF COTTON WILT AND ROOT-KNOT.

WEEDS ATTACKED BY ROOT-KNOT AND THEREFORE TO BE ERADICATED.

Balloon vine (Cardiospermum halicacabum

L.).
Indian potato {Ipomoea sp.).
Maypop or passion flower. {Passifiora

incarnata L.).
Mayweed (Anthemis cotula L.).

Papa\'a or melon pawpaw (Carica papaya

L.i
Pigweed (Amaranthus hybridus L.).
Purslane {Portulacca oleracea L.).
Sawbrier (Smilax glauca, Walt.).
Sweet fennel (Foeniciduni vulgare Hill).

The following rotations are suggested for fields infected with both
wilt and root-knot: Beginning in the fall, sow winter oats if they can
be gotten in early enough to make a fairly good growth before it is
necessary to plow the land for the next crop. Plow the oats under
for green manure and plant corn %vith Iron or Brabham cowpeas
between the rows, putting the corn in at the usual time, about March
15 to 20 for middle Georgia and South Carohna. In the fall sow a
winter gra;in; this can be cut for ha}^ the next May or allowed to ripen.
Coupeas, either the Brabham or the Iron variety, may then be sown
broadcast, or, better, in 2-foot drills, where they can be cultivated once
or t^nce. Cut the cowpeas for hay and follow with another crop of
winter grain. This should be plowed under in the spring in time to
plant a wilt-resistant variety of cotton the third year. If it is desired
to make a 4-year instead of a 3-year rotation, the last-mentioned crop
of winter grain may be harvested for hay or allowed to ripen, a second
crop of Iron or Brabham cowpeas broadcasted for hay, and this fol-
lowed b}" oats to be plowed m for green manure. A wilt-resistant
variety of cotton should then be planted. "Wheat, rye, or barley may
be substituted for oats as a winter gram crop and velvet beans for the
Iron or Brabham cowpea in the more southern districts.

THE CONTROL OF WILT BY THE USE OF RESISTANT VARIETIES.

The experiments of the Bureau of Plant Industry, wliich have now
been carried on for 12 consecutive years, have shown that the only
practicable solution of the wilt problem is through the use of resistant
varieties developed by special breeding. Such varieties have been
produced and grown successfully for the past six years m a large num-
ber of localities ' until no doubt remains as to the possibility and
practicability of controlling wilt in this manner. During this time
these cottons have been further improved by selection for better
^ield, greater resistance, higher percentage of lint, and other desirable
characters.

The first wilt-resistant Upland cotton produced was the Dillon, a
limbless, cluster variety derived from the old Jackson Limbless.
The Dillon cotton is highly resistant to wilt and is a productive
variety. It has produced a bale and a half per acre where other
varieties were a complete failure. The yield of lint is from 37 to 38 per
cent. Tliis variety has been quite widely grown for several years with
uniform!}" good results.

[Cir. 92]

THE CONTROL OF COTTON WILT AND EOOT-KNOT. 9

The second wait-resistant variety bred was the Dixie. Tliis has
the branclied pyranii(hil habit characteristic of the Peterkin group of
varieties and is on this account more popular than the Dillon with
those who object to a cluster cotton. It has medium-sized boils and
jnelds about 35 per cent of lint. More detailed descriptions of these
varieties are given in Farmers' Bulletin 333.

A third promising variety, the Modella, also of the Peterkin type,
is being introduced in Georgia by Mr. A. C. Lewis, of the Georgia
State Board of Entomology.

The real problem at present is to bring these results within the reach
of every farmer wdio needs them. The wilt exists on thousands of
farms and each year is spreading very rapidly. The Goverrmaent can
not put into the hands of every farmer a supply of resistant seed, and,
even if it could, experience has shown that this would not permanently
relieve the situation, for special care is needed to prevent the resis-
tant varieties from deteriorating through crossing with nonresistant
cotton in neighboring fields, through the lack of careful selection, and
through the mixing of seed at the gin. A carefid man can maintain
the quality of this cotton for an indefinite period, but when neg-
lected it has to be replaced by fresh seed in three or four years. Con-
sequently there is likely to be a permanent annual demand for some
thousands of bushels of carefully bred wilt-resistant seed in every
county. It is furthermore apparent that this should be supplied
from wathin the home county, for locally bred seed is adapted to
local conditions and gives better results than seed brought from a
distance. An excellent opportunity exists for progressive men to
engage with profit in the growing of this seed. The methods found
most successful in this work require accuracy and care and instruction
at the start. There is also need for educational work among the farm-
ers that they may understand the methods of wilt control and the
need for root-knot rotations in connection with the use of resistant
varieties.

THE ORGANIZATION OF A COOPERATIVE CAMPAIGN.

The needs mentioned have led to the development of a cooperative
arrangement between the three organizations that have been charged
with one phase or another of the work, namely, the Office of Cotton
and Truck Disease and the Office of Farmers' Cooperative Demon-
stration Work in the Bureau of Plant Industry and their respective
State agencies, the agricultural experiment station at Clemson
College ifor South Carolina, and the State Board of Entomology' at
Atlanta for Georgia.

Since tlie ])lan seeks to utilize all existing agencies and to put the
great problem of wilt control on a self-supporting basis, the details
31147°— Cir. 92—12 2

10 THE CONTEOL OF COTTON WILT AND ROOT-KNOT.

will be of interest to all concerned. The Office of Cotton and Truck
Disease lias been engaged in the scientific questions involved — the
study of the nature and cause of wilt, its control, the breeding of re-
sistant varieties, the nature of disease resistance, etc. The patho-
logical problems have been nearly solved. Tliis office is now working
on the relationsliip and parasitism of the wilt fungi. The breeding
problems are also well on the way to solution. There remain to be
completed studies on the inheritance of disease resistance and a new
line of breeding made necessary by the eastward migration of the
boll weevil, namely, the production of wilt-resistant varieties that
arc early, large boUed, and adapted to boll- weevil conditions. Tliis
work has been under way for four years. It has given results of
promise and will be carried on to completion.

The part of this office in the cooperative work will be to outline
methods of control, provide stocks of the resistant varieties bred,
and furnish all needed aid and information to the other workers.
The work will be done through its representatives in the field who
are at the same time the employees of the South Carolina Agricultural
Experiment Station and the Georgia State Board of Entomology.
The work in Washington is in charge of IMr. W. A. Orton, assisted
by Mr. W. W. Gilbert. The office is represented in South Carolina
by Prof. H. W. Barre, of Clemson College, assisted by Mr. L. O.
Watson, and in Georgia by Mr. E. L. Worsham and Mr. A. C. Lewis,
of the State Board of Entomology at Atlanta.

The Farmers' Cooperative Demonstration Work, in charge of Mr.
Bradford Knapp, has for its general object the improvement of
agricultural methods and conditions in the regions invaded or about
to be invaded by the boll weevil. It has built up for this purpose
a large organization, reaching from State agents through county and
local agents to thousands of farmers who are trying new methods. It
is through these agents and demonstrators and through the extension
department of the States that the men on the farm can be helped
most directly. The part taken by this office in the cooperation con-
sists in the dissemination of information, in bringing effective rota-
tions for the control of root-knot into general practice through
demonstrations by farmers, and in the introduction and trial of wilt-
resistant varieties of cotton and cowpeas.

The agents of the Farmers' Cooperative Demonstration Work will
meet the pathologists as frequently as possible and secure their help
in identifying plant diseases and their advice regarding methods
of control.

The officers of the experiment station in South Carolina xmd the
Board of Entomology in Georgia cooperate in this campaign in several
ways. Their pathologists are the official representatives of the Bureau
of Plant Industry to the end that the efforts of all workers may be
united and duplication of effort and expense avoided.

[Cir. 92]

THE CONTROL OF COTTON WILT AND ROOT-KNOT. 11

Two distinct lines of work arc undcM- way. The first is tlic dis-
semination of information on wilt and root-knot and their control.
The second seeks to provide for the local production of an adequate
supply of the resistant varieties of both cotton and cowpeas, the
permanent maintenance of their quality, and the production of still
better strains. This is to be accomplished by cooperation with pro-
oTessive farmers in the wilt-infected territory.

THE COOPERATIVE BREEDING PLAN.

Experience has shown that most farmers lack the time or oppor-
tunity to do careful seed breeding and that consequently there is a
large and steady demand for improved seed. It will be especially
so with the resistant varieties, and it is beheved that the production
of sucli seed will constitute a specialized business in which a limited
number of farmers will find it profitable to engage.

To assist in the development of such a hne of work, and to insure
the production of a supply of high-bred wilt-resistant seed of known
origin, a plan of cooperation between the United States Department
of Agriculture, the State agricultural officials, and the farmers who
desire to make a specialty of such breeding work has been formu-
lated and 20 or 30 men in each State (Georgia and South Carolina)
have already become interested m the work. The farmers sign
agreements mth the Department and State representatives, promismg
to secure proper seed, to follow the breedmg methods outlined, to
exercise the necessary care to maintain the purity of their seed, and
to offer it for sale at a reasonable price, not to exceed an amount
previously agi'eed upon. They also agree that they will not seU
seed not grown by them unless so stated. The Department and State
representatives provide the cooperative breeders with small quanti-
ties of select planting seed or refer them to farmers from whom select
seed can be purchased at a reasonable price, not to exceed SI. 50 a
bushel. They visit the breeders during the season to advise them
regarding the best methods of breeding and to inspect their crops.

Two grades of selected seed will be recognized: "Registered seed"
and "im])roved seed." Such men as attain the highest standard in
their breeding by carefully following the individual-selection and
progeny-row methods recommended and whose seed is of high grade
win be granted a diploma and allowed to sell their crop as ''regis-
tered seed." Other breeders who are found to be mamtaining the
standard of their varieties in wilt resistance, yield, and purity, but
who are not yet following the required breeding methods in detail or
doing progressive bree(Hng will be given a certificate of recognition of
quality and their seed wih })e designated ''im])r()ved seed." These
<.hpl(jmas and certificates will be given oid^' after thorough inspection

tClr. 92]

12 THE CONTROL OF COTTON WILT AND ROOT-KNOT.

of the growing crops by experts and after an oilicial test of the seed
placed on sale by the breeder in comparison witli standard resistant
strains.

HOW TO SECURE INFORMATION.

The farmer who has had trouble with wilt or root-knot may secure
help from the nearest agent of the Farmers' Cooperative Demonstra-
tion Work or by addressing Prof. H. W. Barre, Clemson College,
S. C, or Mr. A. C. Lewis, Capitol Building, Atlanta, Ga., who will
advise him witli regard to the diseases and the best methods of control-

HOW TO SECURE RESISTANT SEED.

As a result of the cooperative breeding work that has been carried
on during the past season, a considerable supply of wilt-resistant
cotton seed of the Dixie and Dillon varieties has been produced by
cooperating farmers under the supervision of our representatives in
Georgia and South Carolina. This seed is now for sale by them at a
price not to exceed $1.50 a bushel. Parties desiring to secure any
of this seed for planting shoidd \vrite immediately to Prof. Barre or
to Mr. Lewis, stating how much seed is desired. An order on the
cooperative breeder nearest them for the desired quantity of seed
will then be sent them, together with the price to be paid. This
order, accompanied by the necessary money, must be sent by the
purchasing farmer to the breeder, who will immediately ship the seed.
Shipment by freight or express should be specified, all charges to be
paid by the purchaser.

THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.

To maintain the quality of an established cotton variety it has
generally been believed that it is only necessary to grow the cotton
in a field as far separated from other cotton fields as circumstances
permit, to pull out all plants of undesirable character (the process of
"roguing" in the language of seed growers), and to exercise care at
the gin to avoid mixture with other cotton. All this is indeed
imperative, but it has been found that one step farther is necessary
to accomplish the best results and that step is to practice the progeny-
row method of breeding.

Tliis method depends on tlie simple fact that plants differ not only
in their visible characters but also in their ability to transmit these
characters to their oflspring. Cotton should be very uniform in
length and quality, but the greatest variation exists in an unselected
field. Some plants taken from each field produce variable offspring,
while others produce uniform offspring, give a larger yield, a higher
lint percentage, and a better staple.

[Cir. 92]

THE CONTROL OF COTTON WTLT AND EOOT-KNOT.

13

BREEDING METHODS.

The progenv-row method consists in the selection of the best plants
to be found, in plantino; the seed from each in a separate row, and in
tlie final choice that autumn of the best row or rows, the seed from
wJiicli is increased as rai)idly as possible the following years. The
details of tliis method as now practiced and recommended for the
breeder are as follows:

Preparation of land. — Assuming that, to start liis breeding work,
the prospective breeder has obtained from the Department of Agri-
culture or elsewhere a few individual plant selections made the
previous year, he should first select a piece of land badly infected
with ^\alt, separated as far as possible from any other cotton field to
avoid cross-pollination ; often a plat may conveniently be located in a
cornfield or in a field of the same variety being grown for seed. Care
should be taken that the land is not infected with root-knot. The
plat should be prepared and fertilized as for other cotton and the
rows laid off in a block, side by side (see figs. 10, 11, and 12), 4 to 4^
feet apart and 200 to 2.50 feet long, thus providing for 100 hills 2 to
2h feet apart in each progeny row. Plenty of space is necessary to
permit the normal development of the individual plants.

Diagrams illustrating metjiods of seed selection.

A/o./

2-0-
3-7

—^ — :?

'^i:j~^i:^s~^-—^

Fig. 10.— ( Virst Year?) Five selections, made from individual plants of the Dixie variety, are planted in
100 hill rows. This plat is isolat<><i or placed in a c-ornfiold or in a field of Dixie cotton to prevent crossing
with other cotton. All wilted and inferior phints are pulled out during the season. At the end of the
season the rows are carefully inspected, Nos. 2 and 4 selected as the most wilt resistant and productive,
and Nos. 1, 3, and 5 discarded. From these selected progen.v rows, indicated by "x," io individual selec-
tions arc made, indicated by circles and numbers. These are ginned and 8 discarded because of too low
lint percentage or other undesirable characters, leaving the 7 best plants for use next season. All the re-
maining plants in the 2 selected progeny rows are picked into 2 lots for planting increase plats the follow-
ing year.

[Cir. 9:.']

14

THE CONTROL OF COTTON WILT AND EOOT-KNOT.

f^O.

Z-/
2-2
2-5

4-3
4-5
4-6

4-6

^/?OG£'^y ^Ot^^^

A/o 2

•/ 2. J 4
o o o o •

-5"

X

J ^ 3 jf. ^ J,

J

-o o — o o o- — o —

— O

A/o. 4

^ o^ o'' ^ rf Q^ t/

tf

Fig. 11.— (Second Year.) Two increase plats, Nos. 2 and 4, arc planted from seed saved the first year. The
7 indivichial selections are planted in a lilock surrounded by the increased plats, as indicated. The
roguing of the increase plats and progeny rows is done the same as the first year. After careful inspection
in the fall, 3 progeny rows are selected (indicated by "x"), and from these, 20 individual selections are
made, as indicated. The remainder of the selected progeny rows are picked by themselves, ginned, and
compared for wilt resistance, yield, and lint percentage, with the result that 2 are saved for the next year's
increase plats, namely Nos. 2 -2 and 4-8. In the same manner the 20 individual selections are ginned and
compared, and 10 finally saved for further work.

/Vo 2-2

P/fOG£A/y /?ot^s

' ~^ ~^ ^
— o o- c>—

<^ — <^ — s-<^

-d^-^ ty

X
X

//^C/f£>tS£ Plat
/Vo.4-6.

lA/fG£ F/£ID £/?0/^ //VC/!'£/15£ /i/t7S AbS- 2 ^lA/O ^

Fig. 12.— ( TUri Ytar.) The seed from progeny rows Xos. 2-2 and 4-S of the second year arc planted m 2
increased plats and at one end of these, as indicated, are planted the 10 individual selections finally saved.
The seed from the 2 increase plats is used to plant a large adjacent field for seed purposes. These seed are
designated " registered seed." The same methods of roguing and individual selection are continued in
this and subsequent years.
[Cir. !):i]

THE CONTROL OF COTTON WILT AND EOOT-KNOT. 15

Planting. — TJie individual selections should be jJanted by hand
in these progeny rows. A small bull-tongue or wooden V attached
to a plowstock may be used to open a shallow trench in the beds.
The seeds are dropped in this trench at the proper intervals and
covered about an inch deep with the foot and the soil is very slightly
compacted. Four or five seeds to the hill should be used and the
remahider saved for ])0ssible rejdanting. Eacli row should be marked
by a stake at the end, l)earing the number of tlie individual selection.
This should be driven down so that the AvhilHetrees will not liit it
during cultivation. Stakes should be at least ^ by 2^ by 18 inches
long and planed on one side so that the numbers can be written on
them \nth a heavy pencil. For convenience in field labeling and in
keeping breeding records, each selection grown by. an individual
farmer is given a number, as 1, 2, etc.; and each individual selection
made from these has another number added to tlie first witli a dash
between, as 2-1, 2-2.

Thinning, wilt counts, and roguing. — All progeny rows should be
gone over about the middle or last of May, the exact time depending
on the date of planting, and all hills thinned to one plant, leaving the
healtldest plants. A record of the number of hills should be made
to form a basis for the determination of wilt resistance. Counts of
the \\dlted plants in each row should be made about June 20, August
1, and September 15. The total number of wilted plants compared
witli the figures of the original stand will give the percentage of
wilted j)lants. Wilt resistance should be the first and most impor-
tant consideration in the selection of the best progeny rows, only
those being taken which are highly resistant. After each wilt count
the diseased plants should be pulled or rogued out to prevent their
crossing on other plants or being picked by mistake with the healthy
plants.

The year following, when an increase plat is grown from the
progeny-row seed, a similar method of roguing, involving the pulhng
out of all wilted and nontypicalplants, is practiced to maintain the
purity and wilt resistance of the strain.

Selection and note taking. — After the last wilt counts in September
have been made, the progeny plat should be gone over carefully and
all rows discarded that show mucli wilt. Records should be matie
of the principal characters of the jirogeny rows, such as earliness,
uniformity, size, etc., on note l)lanks j)rovided by the Department
of Agriculture. In the books in which these blanks are bound,
detailed directions for taking notes are printed and the time required
for the work is very largely reckiccd by the use of a series of symbols
to indicate the degrees of the characters present which are listed on
the note blanks.

[Clr. OU]

16 THE CONTEOL OF COTTON WILT AND ROOT-KNOT.

Note blank prepared hj the Department of Agriculture.
COTTON NOTES.

No.

Locality Farm of.

Year. .
Notes bv .

PROGENY

NOTES.

No. OFF Type

GENERAL NOTES.

EARLINES.S

Date Planted...

Uniformity

No. Hills

Productivene.ss

Germin.^^tion

Shedding

Date Replanted

Height

No. Living

Shape ■'■' ■ '

. . . ■

No. Wilted

No. Selections . .

INDIVIDUAL NOTES.

1

2

3

4

5 •

Earliness

Productiveness . .

Sheddins;

Height

Joints — long or short

.

Basil branches — numl^er

Length

Productiveness

Persistence . .

Bolls— No

Shape

No. mature on

No locks

Ease of picking .

.Seed — Size Tweicht ner hundred!

Color

Fuzz

-

Lint — Length

Strength

^

Lint index .

Per cent lint

After what appear to be the best progeny rows have been picked
out, a